MSc Lecture 5:

A. Fire Behaviour
of Materials
Professor W.K. Chow
Department of Building Services Engineering
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Hong Kong, China
29 Sept 2015
MScFD3.ppt

Structural Materials
Concrete
Steel
Timber (in U.K./ Japan/ Australia/U.S.A....)
Mansory

Non-structural Materials
Glass
Gypsum Plaster
Plastics

(1) Concrete
Upon heating, density of concrete would decrease
slightly because the free moisture are driven away.
Vapour migrates to the heated side would be changed
into steam and condensed on the cool side.
Ordinary portland cement disintegrates at 400C to
500C.
But damage to concrete structures is caused by
spalling, i.e. breaking off into pieces.
This would form holes and exposing steel
reinforcement to the fire and hence reduce the fire
resistance of the structure.
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 Three types of spalling are experienced in

practice:
(a) Aggregate splitting

This is the bursting and splitting of silica due to

physical changes in crystalline structure at high
temperature.

This is a surface phenomenon for dense concrete

but its effect on the structural performance is
minimal.

(b) Explosion spalling

Large or small pieces of concrete are violently

pushed off the surface accompanied by loud
noises.

This phenomenon is very complex and still not

clearly understood.

But it is related to the nature of the aggregate,

porosity of the concrete, moisture content and the
stress level.

This is explained by a crude theory that high

vapour pressure would be developed inside the
material.
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Because as the concrete is heated, moisture would

start to move from the surface layer to the adjacent
regions.

Part of the moisture would migrate to the inner cold

layers and part escape as steam to the surrounding air.

As the heating proceeds, a dry layer would be formed.

The thickness would be increased and the resistance
to the flow of steam towards the exposed surface
would also be increased.

At the same time, the pores deep inside the material

would become filled with water.

Also, the rate of vaporisation at the interface of the

dry and wet region would increase with time
because of the increase in the rate of heat flow from
the dry to wet region and the temperature gradient
across the dry layer.

At a certain stage, high steam pressures are

produced due to the resistance encountered by the
escaping steam and the high evaporation rate.

This would then lead to spalling into small pieces

with dimension of several centimeters.

(c) Surface spalling

This is due to excessive compression arose from

temperature differences.

When the material is heated, its surface temperature

would start to rise.

At the early stage, there would be a thin layer near the

surface which is higher than the rest of the material.

High temperature would lead to thermal expansion, so

the outer layer would expand more than the inner layer.

But the expansion is restrained by the inner layers and

hence the outer layer is under compression.

If the stresses exceed the compressive strength, spalling

may occur.
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 Therefore, spalling would be promoted by:

high content of free water,

low porosity and permeability and

rapid temperature rise at the exposed

surface, etc.

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 Prevention against spallings may be achieved

by improving those properties.
For example, using lightweight aggregate and
aerating agents can provide higher porosity.
Steam generated would escape and hence
reduce the vapour pressure.
Also using the plaster finishes would prevent a
steep temperature gradient across the section
and hence reduce the surface temperature of the
concrete.
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(2) Steel
Steel is not burn at typical fire temperature
(~1000 C).
However, its high thermal expansion coefficient
will lead to buckling of frameworks.
The high thermal conductivity will assist the
spread of fire.
Also there is a critical temperature (~550 C) at
which the yield strength (~400 MPa) is reduced
to the working stress level (~40 MPa) due to
creeping.
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(3) Timber
Timber is a combustible material.
It is consisted of cellulose, hemicellulose and
lignin.
This is an anisotropic material with properties
depend on the direction.
It can be ignited at about 220 to 300C.
In a fire, softwoods char of about 0.6 mm/min
and hardwoods at about 0.4 mm/min.
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 But there is little loss of strength with

increases in temperature as the charcoal
formed can insulate the interior.
The strength decreases linearly with
temperature T:
tension = -0.48T + 138 MPa
compression = -0.38T + 56 MPa

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(4) Mansory
This includes building stones, clay products
such as bricks, etc.
For building stones, their behaviours are
generally satisfactory in fire.
But granite which contains large quartz
particles will be cracked at temperature about
575 C and therefore should not be used when
a high degree of fire resistance is required.
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 Sandstones are better, but may shrink and crack

on drying with a reduction of about 30-50 % in
strength.
Limestones are even better but they would
dissociate and liberate carbon dioxide at
temperature above 800 C.
Clay products generally behave well as they had
been fired at temperatures much higher than
normal building fire temperatures.
Calcium silicate bricks are also as good as clay
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bricks.

(5) Glass
Glass is non-combustible, but it will be
cracked at an early stage in a fire due to its
high thermal expansion coefficient.
Thin soda-lime silica glass is unable to satisfy
the insulation criterion of fire resistance for
more than a few minutes.
Even thicker glass blocks can only do so for
not more than 15 minutes.
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 Therefore, the types of glazing traditionally

used in fire-resisting constructions are those
specified in C.P. 153: Part 4, i.e. wired glass.
But it will satisfy the stability and integrity
criteria only and cannot meet the performance
required for separating walls, compartment,
and walls enclosing protected shafts, etc.
Only a few modern products can satisfy
insulation for 30 minutes.
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 Glass construction is now a concern.

Cracks Fall out? Vent to give more air
for burning!
Glass would absorb IR.
Thermal stress.
Higher
Temperature

Lower
Temperature

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WTC 911
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Office Towers with Glass Curtain Wall

High OTTV due to high solar heat gain
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Fire at Dalian

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Fire fighting

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Extinguished
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Recent experiments
at Harbin

Double Skin Faade

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(6) Gypsum Plaster

It is non-combustible.
Mixes with light-weight aggregates will have
better fire behaviour as this will improve the
binding power to backing and reducing
cracking.

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(7) Plastics
All plastics
combustible.

and

plastic

based

materials

are

The surface spread of flame of many plastic product is

high.
Very few plastics (e.g. PVC) are difficult to ignite and
are self-extinguishing.
Plastics can be produced in self-extinguishing grades
by the addition of fire-retardant additives.
These are chemicals that added in small
concentrations for inhibiting any one stage of polymer
combustion.
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 In general, polymer combustion can be visualized as:

Combustible

O2

Final Product

Gaseous Products

Polymer

Heat

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 Modifying by fire-retardants may alter the

breakdown process of the polymer.
The nature or rate of evolution of gaseous
decomposition products would be changed
and so the mixture of combustible gas and
oxygen would lie below the flammability
limit.

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 Another mechanism is to add inert materials

known as fillers to take away the heat applied
to the polymer.
In this way, the polymer itself will not be
heated up to a high temperature for breaking
down process.

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 Also, the polymer surface might be covered

by non-flammable protective coating.
The burning stage can also be inhibited.
For example, flame propagation can be
interfered by misty particles emitted from the
retardant as they may catalyze free-radical
recombinations.

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 But the most serious hazards posed by plastics in fire

involve the emission of smoke and toxic fumes, which
are much more important than the heat.
In complete combustion, carbon dioxide will be given
out.
For incomplete combustion, carbon monoxide will be
liberated.
Other toxic gases such as hydrogen chloride,
hydrogen cyanide, nitrogen dioxide, etc. will all be
emitted.
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 Common examples of gaseous products from burning

organic polymers in air are:
Polymer

CO2

CO

Polyethylene
Polystyrene

502
590

195
207

Nylon-6.6
Polyacrylamide

563
783

194
173

Polyacrylonitrile
Polyurethane

630
625

132
160

Poly(phenylene

1892

219

sulphide)
Eposy resin

961

Combustion products (mg g-1 polymer)

COS SO2 N2O NH3 HCN CH4

C2H4

C2H2

65
7

187
16

10
6

26
21

39
20

82
13

7
4

59
1

8
17

37

228

33

Urea-formaldehyde 980
resin

80

22

Melamine resin
Cedar

190
66

702
1397

4
32

451

27

136

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(8) Typical combustible

used in design
Material

Where used

Melamine faced
phenolic laminate

Ceilings

Inert oxide-filled
acrylonitrile

materials
Fire behaviour
test criteria
BS476 Part 7
Class 1
BS476 Part 6,
i not over 6
I not over 12

Calorific value
(MJ/kg)
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Floor covering

BS476 Part 7
Class 1

Chlorosulphonated
polyethylene
over butyl rubber

Cable insulation

BS4066 Flame test

pass

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Glass-reinforced
polyester

Window frames
cab front, roof
areas external covers

BS476 Part 7
Class 1 oxygen
index 33 minimum

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Material

Where used

Fire behaviour
test criteria

Calorific value
(MJ/kg)

Reinforced
polychloroprene

Air springs,
gangways,
solid springs

Oxygen index
30 minimum

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Timber and
plywood

Floor deck,
battery boxes

BS476 Part 7
Class 1

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Phenolic cloth
or paper laminate

Electrical boards

Oxygen index
30 minimum

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Polyurethane
and epoxy paint
on aluminium

Corrosion
preventive coatings

BS476 Part 7
Class 1

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 Smoke toxicity:
Another concern?

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Toxic potency data

LT50

IT50

LT50 is the mean IT50 is the timetime-to-death.

toincapacitation,
where
concentration is
fixed.

EC50

LC50

IC50

EC50 is the
LC50 is used to
IC50 is the
effect
denote the
concentration
concentration concentration of necessary to
which is used materials or fire incapacitate
for any
effluent that
50 % of the
observed
produces death animals for a
response of the in 50 % of the
specified
animal.
animals for a exposure time.
specified
exposure time.

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 NFPA269 Standard Test Method for Developing Toxic

Potency Data for Use in Fire Hazard Modeling and
ASTM E 1678 Standard Test Method for Measuring
Smoke Toxicity for Use in Fire Hazard Analysis,

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Smoke toxicant
Smoke toxicants
Asphyxiants
CO

HCN

Irritants
CO2

Central nervous system

depression
Loss of consciousness
Ultimately death

HBr

Halogen acid

Organic

HCl

Acrolein

(in fire retardants)

Sensory irritation

Irritation of eyes

Pulmonary irritation

Upper respiratory tract

coughing
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Calculation of LC50
n

ci
dt

ct
i 1 t 0
i

FED
FED

21 [O2 ]
m[CO ]
[ HCN ]
[ HCl ]
[ HBr ]

[CO2 ] b 21 LC 50 O2 LC 50 HCN LC 50 HCl LC 50 HBr

21 [O2 ] [ HCN ]
m[CO ]
[ HCl ]
[ HBr ]

[CO2 ] b 21 5.4% 150 ppm 3700 ppm 3000 ppm

FED
LC 50

m[CO ]
21 [O2 ] [ HCN ] [ HCl / HBr ]

[CO2 ] b 21 5.4% 150 ppm

3800 ppm
specimen mass loss
FED x chamber volume
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Experiment

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 Preliminary tests on 9 materials

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Result of LC50 calculated

Material

LC50(gm-3)

Pine

50.7

False ceiling

84.4

PMMA

255.5

Beech

147.4

Beech with protective coating

136.5

PVC

30.8

Maple

107.2

Teak

98.8

Oak

108.3
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