Modern Control

Engineering
Fifth Edition

Katsuhiko Ogata

Chapter 1
Introduction to Control Systems and
Mathematical Review
Prepared by Nurul Muthmainnah,
Faculty of Mechanical UiTM

Overview
- Definition and Concepts
- Review of Mathematical Equation
- Elements of Control System
- Open-loop and Closed-loop Systems
- Types of Controllers and Control
Actions

Definition and Concepts

Definition and Concepts

SYSTEM
A system is a combination of
components that act together and
perform a certain objective. A system is
not limited to physical ones.

CONTROLLED
SYSTEM
A system in which some physical quantity
is controlled by regulating an energy
source.

Review of Mathematical Equation

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Chapter 2: System Model Representation
Chapter 3: Mathematical modeling of engineering systems
LAPLACE TRANSFORM
Chapter 2: System Model Representation
Chapter 4: System Performance Analysis Time response
analysis
COMPLEX VARIABLES & COMPLEX FUNCTIONS
Chapter 5: System Performance Analysis Frequency
response
MATRICES (EIGENVALUES & EIGENVECTORS)
Chapter 6: Analysis of Control Systems using
S
tate
Space method

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Differential equations generally involve derivatives and

integrals of the dependant variables with respect to the

independent variable.
Example: A shock absorber system of a car. It can be
represented in differential equation as :-

where R is the resistance, L the inductance, C the

capacitance, i(t) the current and v(t) the applied
voltage. The dependent variable i(t) is determined by
solving the equation.

Continue
In general, a differential equation of nth-order is written as

Which is also known as a linear ordinary differential

equation if the coefficients a0 , a1 , ,an-1 are not a

function of y(t).

LAPLACE TRANSFORM
Laplace transform is used to convert from time domain to

s-domain.
Working with differential equation is rather complicated.
In analyzing and designing a control system it is easier to
work in s-domain.
Laplace transform is defined as;

Where = + , a complex variable.

Example 1.1
Let f(t) be a unit-step function that is defined as

Solution

Example 1.2
Consider the exponential function

where is real constant

Solution

Laplace Transform Table

Laplace Transform Theorems

Inverse Laplace Transformation Using Partial

Fraction Method
Given the Laplace transform F(s), the operation of obtaining

f(t) is termed the inverse Laplace Transformation and is

denoted by:
() = 1 [()]
Inverse Laplace Transform is used when we want to
convert from s-domain to time domain.
The inverse Laplace transform of rational functions are
normally carried out using partial-fraction expansion and the
Laplace transform table.

Case 1: Simple poles

If all the poles of G(s) are simple and real, then G(s) can be written as

Applying partial-fraction expansion, the equation can be written as

The numerator of each fraction is called the residue. is called the

residue of G(s) for the pole = .

The inverse transform is the written as

Example 1.3
Consider the function

Solution

Case 2: Multiple-order poles

If r of the n poles is identical, G(s) is written as

Then G(s) can be expanded as Then G(s) can be expanded as

The (n-r) coefficients K-s1, K-s2, , K-s(nr) which correspond to simple poles

may be evaluated as explained before. The coefficients A1 Ar are evaluated

as follows:

Example 1.4
Consider the function

Solution

Case 3: Simple complex-conjugate poles

Suppose that G(s) contains a pair of complex poles:

The corresponding coefficients of these poles are

Example 1.5
Considering transfer function G(s)

Solution

COMPLEX VARIABLES & COMPLEX

FUNCTIONS
Complex Variables Concept
A complex variable denoted by s consists of two components: a real
component x and an imaginary axis component y. Graphically, the
real component of s is represented by a x-axis in the horizontal
direction, and the imaginary component is measured along the
vertical jy-axis.
Using notation = -1, all numbers in
engineering calculations can be re-written as
= +
Complex Number

Complex s-plane

Imaginary unit

Continue..
A complex number can be written in rectangular form or in polar form

as follows:
i. Rectangular forms
= +
= (cos + sin )
ii. Polar forms
= ||
= ||
In converting complex numbers to polar form from rectangular, we use

To convert complex number to rectangular form from polar, we employ

 Complex Function Concept

d) Singularities of a Function
The singularities of a function are the points in the s-plane at which
the function or its derivatives do not exist. A pole is the most
common of singularities and plays a very important role in studies
of classical control theory.

Elements of Control System

Terms & Definition

Terms & Definition

Example 1: Speed control system

Example 2: Temperature control system

Example 3: Block diagram of an engineering

organizational system

Open-loop and Closed-loop Systems

1.2 Open-loop and closed-loop systems

(Comparison)
SYSTEMS

ADVANTAGES

DISADVANTAGES

OPEN-LOOP

Simple construction and ease of

maintenance
Less expansive
There is no stability problem
Convenient when the output is
hard to measure or economically
not feasible

System response is very

sensitive to external
disturbance and internal
variations in system
parameters
Recalibration is necessary to
maintain required output
quality

CLOSEDLOOP /
Feedback (FB)
Control System

Makes the system response

relatively insensitive to external
disturbance and internal
variations in system parameters
Increased accuracy by ability to
reproduce output with varied
input

Risk instability
Complexity in analysis and
implementation
Expensive

Types of Controllers and Control Actions

1. Two-position or on-off controller

2. Proportional (P) controller
3. Integral (I) controller
4. Proportional-Integral (PI) controller
5. Proportional-Derivative (PD) controller
6. Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) controller

Two-Position / On-Off Control Action

The controller is essentially just a switch which is activated by the error signal

and supplies just an on-off correcting signal

Relatively simple and inexpensive
Widely used in both industrial and domestic control systems
The output signal from the controller m(t) remains at either a maximum or
minimum value, depending on whether the actuating error signal is positive or
negative.

Two-position controllers are generally electrical devices, electric solenoid-

operated valve or pneumatic proportional controller (high gain).

Block diagram of an on-off controller

Differential gap = the range

through which the actuating error
signal must move before the
switching occurs

Example: Liquid-level control system

(a) Liquid-level control system; (b) electromagnetic valve.

Level h(t)-versus-t curve for the system shown in

Figure (a).

Proportional Control Action

The controller produces a control action that is proportional to the

error.
The bigger the error signal the bigger the correcting signal.
Thus as the error is reduced, the amount of correction is reduced and
the correcting process slows down.

Integral Control Action

The controller produces a control action that is

proportional to the integral of the error with time.

Thus a constant error signal will produce an
increasing correcting signal.
The correction continues to increase as long the
error persists.
The integral controller can be considered to be
looking-back, summing all the errors and thus
responding to changes that have occurred.

Proportional plus derivative (PD) Control Action

Proportional plus integral (PI) Control Action

Proportional plus integral plus derivative (PID)

Control Action

The standard form of PID controller is as follows

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