CHAPTER # 5

DEFECTS IN CONSTRUCTION

DEFECTS IN BRICK WORK

Common defects occurring in brick work are

Sulphate attack on mortars
Unsound materials
Frost action
Corrosion of iron and steel
Crystallization of salts
Linear changes resulting from variation in moisture
content

DEFECTS IN BRICK WORK

SULPHATE ATTACK ON MORTARS

Sulphate attack leads to expansion of mortar, thereby, causing

cracking of brickwork, spalling of brick edges, deterioration of
mortar, wide horizontal and vertical cracks in the plaster and
falling of the plastered surface.
The cause of this attack is the chemical action between the
sulphate salts in bricks and constituents of Portland cement.
This action is rapid in the presence of water and hence
wherever moisture penetrates, excessive dampness occurs.
This type of defect may be prevented by preventing moisture
penetration.
It will avoid the defect to a large extent. Bricks of low sulphate
content and the sulphate resisting cement should be used.

DEFECTS IN BRICK WORK

UNSOUND MATERIALS

Unsound materials cause the formation of small pits at

the mortar joints.
General expansion and cracking of brickwork is visible.
Unsoundness in lime is caused by the presence of unslaked particles of lime, present in the mortar. Similarly
un-slaked lime particles may be present in the bricks
also.

FROST ACTION

Defects due to frost action would cause cracking in

brickwork. Prevention of water accumulation would
prevent this defect

DEFECTS IN BRICK WORK

CORROSION OF METALS

Brickwork may get opened or cracked or stained due to

corrosion of metals lying adjacent to it. Unprotected iron
and steel are liable to get corroded when acted upon by
moisture and they increase in bulk, thereby causing
cracks in masonry.
Protecting the metal surface with cement mortar up to a
layer of 1 to 2 cm. thick is essential to prevent corrosion.
Partially embedded steel or iron members should be
surrounded with bituminous compound for portions not
embedded in mortar.

DEFECTS IN BRICK WORK

CRYSTALLIZATION OF SALTS (OR EFFLORESCENCE)
This is a prominent defect in brick masonry.
In moist climate, in damp places, like basements or under
leaky gutters, masonry often gets disfigured by the formation
of a white deposit called efflorescence.
deposit originates from the mortar and frequently spreads over
a part or entire face of the wall.
Absorbed water dissolves the salts of sodium, potassium and
magnesium contained in the mortar and while evaporating,
forms a crystalline deposit on the surface.
In addition to unsightly appearance, the crystallization of salts
in the pores of the bricks or mortar may cause disruptive
expansion resulting in disintegration due to cracking.

DEFECTS IN BRICK WORK

REMEDY

Avoiding the use of porous bricks in contact with limestone.

Protection of brickwork against contamination of salt-bearing
materials during building operations.
From being thoroughly soaked during construction
Correct design of D.P.C.

SHRINKAGE EFFECTS

Brickwork may crack due to the shrinkage movements arising from

changes in moisture content.
This defect is more common with concrete and lime mortars.

REMEDY

Good quality bricks should be used in dry condition.

All the work should be protected from rain.

DAMPNESS IN OLD STRUCTURES

Before applying any remedial measure to a damp wall there

should be free escape for any water that has already entered
in the wall
Silica solution is transparent and very effective in resisting
dampness.
Internal treatment of affected walls would consist of
removing the old plaster, applying a slurry coat of neat
cement with a water proofing compound and then cement
rendering with a dense mortar, of 1: 2 with integral water
proofer added.
Another internal treatment for damp walls is the application
of an impervious coating of some material or a coating of
bitumen or tar followed by blinding with sand and plastering.

DAMPNESS IN OLD STRUCTURES

The following methods are also used for preventing
dampness in walls
a) Two parts by weight of coal tar and one part by weight of
pitch are put in a vessel, heated and stirred, until the mixture
is sufficiently liquid. It is then applied on walls, and is found
to keep out dampness very wall.
b) Spray or paint the walls with a solution of sodium silicate,
followed by a solution of calcium chloride, which forms an
insoluble silicate.
If dampness is confined to one position near ground floor
level above the D.P.C., it may be due to a hole or crack in
D.P.C. through which moisture can pass into the wall
alone.

DAMPNESS IN OLD STRUCTURES

Dampness below ground level may be due to lack of subsoil drainage, absence of vertical D.P.C. or leaking drains.
REPELLING MATERIALS
Water repelling compounds are mixed in cement to make
it water repellant. Examples are:

Chemically active ----------------- Sodium and potassium

soaps.
Chemically inactive ------------- Calcium soaps and resin
oils.

DEFECTS IN PLASTER WORK

Cracks in plaster work are chiefly due to:

Structural defects in buildings and discontinuity of

surface
Plastering on very wet background
Old surfaces not being properly prepared
Over-rapid drying
Pitting and blowing are due to partly slaking and
hydration of the lime particles in plaster

DEFECTS IN PLASTER WORK

Falling out of plaster is chiefly due to:

Lack of adhesion for not having formed a proper key

in the back ground
Excessive moisture in background
Excessive thermal changes either in background or in
plaster
Rapid drying
Insufficient drying between each coat of plaster

DEFECTS IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION

There are three basic defects in a concrete structure, cracking,
spalling, and disintegration
These defects may be defined as a general decay of the
surface involving loss of cement paste and loosening of the
particles of coarse aggregates
The following defects are associated with concrete construction:
Settlement of foundation or soil
Movement of formwork or disturbance of concrete during
setting
Internal settlement of concrete
Setting shrinkage
Corrosion of reinforcement

DEFECTS IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION

SETTLEMENT OF FOUNDATION OR SOIL

If there are local soft particles in the soil on which the
concrete is placed, or if there are any air pockets, there
will be a local settlement of the concrete due to weight
of the plastic mass. If this settlement occurs after
finishing of the concrete surface, cracks will appear.
REMEDY
The occurrence may be prevented by giving proper
attention to compacting and draining the soil below.

DEFECTS IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION

MOVEMENT OF FORMWORK OR DISTURBANCE OF
CONCRETE DURING SETTING

Any movement of the formwork, which occurs between the times that the
concrete begins to lose its fluidity and the time that it has fully set, will
cause cracks to appear in the structure.
These cracks may be internal and visible by surface inspection. As such,
they form a water pocket in the concrete mass, which upon freezing (in
very cold climate) will expand the concrete surface. Moreover, corrosion
of the reinforcement can occur from such water pockets.

REMEDY

Prevention of such concrete requires that surfaces of the formwork in

contact with the concrete be coated with suitable mould oil to prevent
absorption of moisture and consequent swelling.
Formwork should be properly designed particularly with respect to the
details and deflection considerations.

DEFECTS IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION

INTERNAL SETTLEMENT OF CONCRETE
Fluid concrete before attaining initial set, is subjected to
settlement of the heavier particles through the fluid matrix.
Since the surface concrete hardens first, if such settlement is not
prevented, local cracking will occur.
Still worse condition may be where the reinforcement consists of
a heavy material of closely spaced bars. Instead of surface
cracks, a plane of general separation may be formed.
REMEDY
Surface cracks can be closed by delayed finishing of concrete
surface. Commencing the curing operation as soon as possible,
after placement of concrete, is also beneficial. It reduces the
amount of differential settlement between the surface and interior
volume of the suspension. Proper vibratory compaction is a must

DEFECTS IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION

SETTING SHRINKAGE
Volume changes during the initial setting of concrete tend to
cause the formation of shallow surface cracks.
Setting shrinkage is normally considered after 24 hours.
Shrinkage is mainly due to migration of moisture in the
concrete.
Chemical action due to sulphates may also cause shrinkage.
soft sandstone aggregates are more subjected to shrinkage.
REMEDY
Providing the movement of joints (such as expansion joints)
will reduce the effect of cracking due to shrinkage.
Provide an adequate quantity of distribution reinforcement

DEFECTS IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION

CORROSION OF REINFORCEMENT

The reinforcement is normally placed within a few inches

of the surface.
If the reinforcement is exposed to air and water, it will
corrode.
The volume of the oxide produced by corrosion is about 8
times that of the parent metal, and the result is that the
concrete cover is cracked and spalled.
REMEDY
The steel be kept away from contact with water in the
presence of oxygen. This can best be accomplished by
encasing the bars in a dense concrete mass and providing
adequate cover

DEFECTS IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION

Keep weep holes open and see that roofs, balconies,

projections and similar features drip (dropping of water)
clear of the lower structure
Calcium and Magnesium Chlorides, used to accelerate
the setting of concrete, will also promote corrosion, if
present in excess amount
If used, their quantity must not exceed 2%.
Good concrete has 2% absorption of water, however, it is
permissible up to 10%. But exceeding this %age will
increase the corrosion effect.

DEFECTS IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION

CHEMICAL DETERIORATION OF CONCRETE
Concrete is chemically stable, but deteriorates if subjected to
aggressive chemical agents, such as Sulphate, acids.
Sulphate solutions react with the constituents of cement,
forming calcium-sulpho-aluminate hydrate. This reaction is
accompanied by a substantial expansion and causes cracking
and disruption of the concrete mass .

REMEDY
High alumina cement is a remedy for sulphate attack.
In acid environments, the use of limestone aggregate
will somewhat prevent attack by neutralizing a portion
of the acid.

DEFECTS IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION

A more positive answer however is, to form a protective

coating. Bituminous coatings work nicely for exposure
to sulphate or weak acid solutions.
A facing of ceramic tile set in acid-proof mortar is an
excellent precaution.
Even a little thing, like frequent cleaning for the concrete
surface with water is a big help