CHALUKYA

INTRODUCTION
The Chalukya dynasty refers to an
Indian royal dynasty that ruled large
parts of southern and central India
between
the
sixth
and
twelfth
centuries.
During that period, they ruled as three
closely
related,
but
individual
dynasties.
The earliest dynasty, known as the
"Badami Chalukyas", ruled from their

After the death of Pulakesi II, the Eastern

Chalukyas became an independent kingdom in the
eastern Deccan. They ruled from their capital Vengi
until about the 11th century.
In 550 Pulakesi I established the Chalukya dynasty.
He took Vatapi (Badami in Bagalkot district,
Karnataka) under his control and made it his capital.
In the western Deccan, the rise of the Rashtrakutas
in the middle of 8th century eclipsed the Chalukyas
of Badami before being revived by their
descendants, the Western Chalukyas, in late 10th
century.

WESTERN CHALUKYA
EMPIRE
The Western Chalukya Empire ruled most of the western
Deccan, South India, between the 10th and 12th centuries.
Capital Manyakheta, Basavakalyan
Languages Kannada
Religion Hindu
Government Monarchy
Kings
957 to 997 Tailapa II
1184 to 1189 Someshvara IV
History
Earliest Records 957
Established 973
Disestablished - 1189

Extent
of
Wester
n
Chaluk
ya
Empir
e,
1121C
E.

EASTERN CHALUKYA EMPIRE

The Eastern Chalukyas were a South Indian empire whose

kingdom was positioned in the present day Andhra Pradesh.
Capital Vengi and Rajamundry
Languages Kannada, Telugu, Sanskrit
Religion Hinduism
Government Monarchy
Maharaja
624 to 641 Kubja Vishnuardhana
641 to 673 Jayasimha I
673 to 682 Vishnuvardhana II
1018 to 1061 Rajaraja Narendra
History
Established 624
Disestablished - 1189

ADMINISTRATION
WESTERN CHALUKYAS
The
Western
Chalukya
kingship
was
hereditary, passing to the king's brother if
the king did not have a male heir. The
administration was highly decentralized
and feudatory clans such as the Alupas, the
Hoysalas, the Kakatiya, the Seuna, the
southern Kalachuri and others were allowed
to rule their autonomous provinces, paying
an annual tribute to the Chalukya emperor.

EASTERN CHALUKYAS
In its early life, the Eastern Chalukya court was essentially a
republic of Badami, and as generations passed, local factors
gained in strength and the Vengi monarchy developed features of
its own.
The government was a monarchy based on the Hindu philosophy.
The inscriptions refer to the traditional seven components of the
State (Saptanga) and the eighteen Tirthas (Offices), such as:
Mantri (Minister)
Purohita (Chaplain)
Senapati (Commander)
Yuvaraja (Heir-apparent)
Dauvarika (Door-keeper)
Pradhana (Chief)
Adhyaksha (Head of Department) and so on.

SOCIETY
WESTERN CHALUKYAS
The social role of women largely depended on their economic status
and level of education in this relatively liberal period.
Freedom was more available to women in the royal and
affluent urban families.
In a Hindu caste system that was conspicuously present,
Brahmins enjoyed a privileged position as providers of knowledge
and local justice.
People found indoor amusement by attending wrestling matches
(Kusti) or watching animals fight such as cock fights and ram fights
or by gambling. Horse racing was a popular outdoor past time.
Schools and hospitals are mentioned in records and these were
built in the vicinity of temples. Marketplaces served as open air
town halls where people gathered to discuss and ponder local
issues.

EASTERN CHALUKYAS

The population in the Vengi country was heterogeneous in

character.
Xuanzang, who travelled in the Andhra country after the
establishment of the Eastern Chalukya kingdom, noted that
the people were of a violent character, were of a dark
complexion and were fond of arts.
The society was based on hereditary caste system.
The Brahmins were held in high esteem in the society.
The Kshatriyas were the ruling class. Their love of intrigue
and fighting was responsible for civil war for two centuries.
The Komatis (Vaisyas) was flourishing trading community.
The Sudras constituted the bulk of the population and there
were several sub-castes among them. The army furnished a
career for most of them.

RELIGION
WESTERN CHALUKYAS
The growth of Virashaivism in the Chalukya
territory and Vaishnava Hinduism in the
Hoysala
region
paralleled
a
general
decreased interest in Jainism.
Basavanna and other Virashaiva saints
preached of a faith without a caste system.
In his Vachanas (a form of poetry),
Basavanna appealed to the masses in simple
Kannada and wrote "work is worship.

ASAVANNA
STATUE

A Hero stone with old Kannada

inscription (1115 AD) during the
rule of Vikarmaditya VI at the

EASTERN CHALUKYAS

Buddhism, which was dominant during

the Satavahanas was in decline. Its
monasteries were practically deserted.
Jainism, unlike Buddhism, continued to
enjoy some support from the people. This
is evident from the several deserted
images in ruined villages all over Andhra.
The temple establishments like dancers
and musicians show that during this
period, temples were not only a centre of

ARCHITECTURE

The Chalukyas were great patrons of art. They developed

the vesara style in the building of structural temples.

The structural temples of the Chalukyas exist at Aihole,

Badami and Pattadakal. Cave temple architecture
was also famous under the Chalukyas.

More than 150 monuments attributed to the Badami

Chalukya, and built between 450 and 700, remain in the
Malaprabha basin in Karnataka.

According to some art critics, the Badami Chalukya style

constitutes a "prayaga" or confluence of formal trends of
architecture, the dravida and nagara. The temples
arose from religious enthusiasm and intensity of purpose.
Aihole has become viewed as "one of the cradles of
Indian temple architecture.

GOLINGESWA
RA
TEMPLE
(Andhra
Pradesh)

LAD
KHAN
TEMPLE
(Karnatak
a)

Ornate pillars at
SARASWATI TEMPLE
temple in Gadag city,
Karnataka.

Typical
Western
Chalukya
dravida
Vimana at
SIDDESVA
RA
TEMPLE in
Haveri,
Karnataka.

PALLAVAS

INTRODUCTION

Todays southern India was once ruled by the

Pallava
dynasty
between
the
2ndand
9thcenturies CE, who are known for their great
architecture.
Kanchi or modern-day Kanchipuram was the
capital city of the Pallavas. Telegu, Tamil and
Sanskrit were their main languages.
Different architectural patterns, especially the
stone-cut religious sites in Mahabalipuram, are
associated with them.
Most of their places worships were devoted to
Lord Shiva.

The Pallavas are known for their cultural

development rather than political acumen.
Gifts of land were frequently given to gods
and Brahmins. Also, Vedic sacrifices and
Aswamedha riteswere part of their
rituals.
For writing purposes, a one-of-its-own-kind
southern Brahmi script was developed by
them, which was later on exported
eastwards. It is said that this writing script
has influenced almost all the southern

ADMINISTRATION

Most of the Pallavas kings were great scholars who were

given
titles
like
Maharajadhiraja,
Dharmamaharjadhiraja, and Agnistomavajpeya. For their
assistance, the ministerial council was constituted.
All the matters of the villages were looked after by the
council orsabha. Informal gathering in the villages were
known as urarand were used to assist village courts.
All land was owned by the king.
Villages with huge inter-caste population used to pay
taxes to the king.
There were two types of taxes the one paid to the
state, and the one collected in the villages and spent for
the need in the village.

SOCIETY

The period of Pallavas is significant as it

completed the Aryanisation of southern India.
The University of Kanchi was an important
seat of education in the South. This has been
mentioned in the writings of Hiuen-Tsang, a
Chinese traveler.
Most of the kings of Pallava dynasty were
orthodox Hindus who worshipped Lord Shiva.
Local traditions were replaced by the Vedic
traditions. As Brahmins had the knowledge of
the Vedas, so they achieved superior status.

Early education was influenced by Jains and Buddhists.

Madurai and Kanchi were the main centers for Jain institutes
but soon these were replaced by Brahminical institutions.
Popularity of mathematics increased in the 8thcentury. The
main medium of instructions in all the schools was Sanskrit.
The temples became not only the places of worship, but they
became important cultural and administrative centres
were festivals were held and people also gathered in the
temples to solve local problems.

CULTURE

The period under the Pallavas was marked by

considerable literary activities and cultural revival.
The Pallavas warmly patronized Sanskrit language and
most of the literary records of the time were composed
in that language.
The core of learning and education, Kanchi became the
point of attraction for the literary scholars. Dinanaga,
Kalidasa, Bharvi, Varahamihir etc. were the
distinguished person with enormous talent in the Pallava
country.
Dandin, the master of Sanskrit prose probably lived in
the court of Narasimhavarmana II. Under the royal
patronage, Kanchi became the seat of Sanskrit language
and literature.

WRITING SYSTEM

Under the Pallava dynasty, a unique form of

Southern Brahmi script developed. Around the
6th century, it was exported eastwards and
influenced the genesis of almost all Southeast
Asian scripts.

It appears that the language of the Pallavas was

known as Pahalvi or Pehalvi. The biography OF
Lord Buddha was written in this language during
the reign of the Pallavas (6th or 7th century).

ARCHITECTURE
Pallava temples were made in four distinct styles. These are:
Mahendra style: This is a cave-style architecture and can be
seen in the Ekambaranatha (Kanchipuram) Temple of the
Pallavas.
Mamalla style: These are monolithic temples made from
single stone. There are seven Pagodas situated near
Mahabalipuram that display an outstanding quality of this
Pallava art.
Rajasimha style: The Kailasha Temple of Kanchi displays this
style. The temple has a pyramidal tower and its mandapam is
made in a flat-roof style.
Aparajita style: This resembles with the Chola architecture
style, being more elaborate. A few temples at Dalavanur
display this style of architecture. Also, one can see beautiful
figures of Pallava kings and queens.

EKAMBARANTH
AR
TEMPLE
(Kanchipuram,
Tamil Nadu)
(Mahendra
Style)

The SHORE
TEMPLE at
Mahabalipur
am built by
Narasimhava
rman II.
(Mamalla
Style)

KAILASANATHA
TEMPLE
(Kanchipuram,
Tamil Nadu)
(Rajasimha Style)

MANDAGAPPAT
TU
TEMPLE
(Tamil Nadu)
(Aparajita Style)

CHOL
AS

INTRODUCTION
The Chola dynasty was one of the longestruling dynasties in the history of southern
India.
The dynasty originated in the rich Kaveri
(Cauvery) River valley. Uraiyur (now
Tiruchchirappalli was its oldest capital.
King Karikaran who is famous in the South
Indian history is believed to be the common
ancestor of the Deccan and the Andhra
families from where the Cholas were
derived.

IN BRIEF

CAPITAL
Early Cholas Poompuhar, Urayur, Tiruvarur

Medieval Cholas Pazhaiyaarai, Thanjavur, Gangaikonda,

Cholapuram

LANGUAGES Tamil

RELIGION Hinduism

GOVERNMENT Monarchy

KINGS
848 to 871 Vijayalaya Chola
1246 to 1279 Rajendra Chola III

HISTORICAL ERA
Established 300s BCE
Rise of the Medieval Cholas 848 CE
Empire at its greatest extent 1030 CE

NATURE OF GOVERNMENT

In the age of the Cholas, the whole of South India

came, for the first time, brought under a single
government,
when
a
reform
movement
attempted to face and solve the problems of
public administration.
Thanjavur
and
later
Gangaikonda
Cholapuram served as the imperial capitals,
while
both
Kanchipuram
and
Madurai
constituted regional capitals where courts
occasionally convened. The king presided as the
supreme commander and a benevolent dictator.
Due to the lack of a legislature or a legislative

LOCAL
GOVERNMENT

Every village made a self-governing unit. A number of

villages constituted a larger entity known as a Kurram,
Nadu, or Kottram,, depending on the area. A number
of Kurrams constituted a valanadu. Those structures
underwent constant change and refinement throughout
the Chola period.
Punishment for minor crimes came in the form of
fines or a direction for the offender to donate to some
charitable
endowment.
Even
crimes
such
as
manslaughter or murder received fines as punishment.
The king himself heard and decided crimes of the
state, such as treason with the typical punishment
either execution or the confiscation of property.

MILITARY

The Chola dynasty had a professional military, of which

the king was the supreme commander.
It had four elements, comprising the cavalry, the
elephant corps, several divisions of infantry and a navy.
The Chola army was spread all over the country and was
stationed in local garrisons or military camps known as
Kodagams.
The Chola rulers built several palaces and fortifications
to protect their cities. The fortifications were mostly made
up of bricks but other materials like stone, wood and mud
were also used.
The Chola navy played a vital role in the expansion of
the empire, including the conquest of the Ceylon islands
and naval raids on Srivijaya.

ECONOMY

Land revenue and trade tax were the main source of

income.
The Chola rulers issued their coins in gold, silver and
copper.
The Chola economy was based on three tiersat the
local level, agricultural settlements formed the foundation
to commercial towns nagaram, which acted as
redistribution centers for externally produced items bound
for consumption in the local economy and as sources of
products made by nagaram artisans for the international
trade.
At the top of this economic pyramid were the elite
merchant groups (samayam) who organized and
dominated the regions international maritime trade.

Coins
of the
Chola
Dynast
y.

One of the main articles which were exported

to foreign countries were cotton cloth.
Uraiyur, the capital of the early Chola rulers,
was a famous centre for cotton textiles which
were praised by Tamil poets.
During the Chola period silk weaving attained
a high degree and Kanchipuram became one of
the main centers for silk.

SOCIETY

During the Chola period several guilds, communities

and castes emerged.
The farmers occupied one of the highest positions
in society.
The Kaikolar community were weavers and
merchants but they also maintained armies. During
the Chola period they had predominant trading and
military roles.
The quality of the inscriptions of the regime
indicates a high level of literacy and education.
Vocational education was through hereditary
training in which the father passed on his skills to
his sons.

LITERATURE

The age of the Imperial Cholas (8501200) represented the

golden age of Tamil culture.

The revival of Hinduism from its nadir during the Kalabhras

spurred the construction of numerous temples and those in turn
generated Saiva and Vaishnava devotional literature.

Jivaka-chintamani by Tirutakkadevar and Sulamani by

Tolamoli numbered among notable by non-Hindu authors.

Kamban flourished during the reign of Kulothunga Chola III. His

Ramavatharam representes the greatest epic in Tamil
Literature.

The famous Tamil poet Ottakuttan lived as a contemporary of

Kulothunga Chola I. Ottakuttan wrote Kulothunga Solan Ula a
poem extolling the virtues of the Chola king.

RELIGION
In
general,
Cholas
professed
Hinduism.
Evidence
in Purananuru points to
Karikala Cholas faith in the Vedic
Hinduism in the Tamil country.
Rajaraja
Chola I even patronised
Buddhists, and built the Chudamani
Vihara (a Buddhist monastery) in
Nagapattinam at the request of the
Srivijaya Sailendra king.

ART

The Cholas continued the temple-building traditions

of the Pallava dynasty and contributed significantly
to the Dravidian temple design.
The maturity and grandeur to which the Chola
architecture had evolved found expression in the
two
temples
of
Tanjavur
and
Gangaikondacholapuram.
Its remarkable sculptures and bronzes sets the
Chola period apart.
The best example of that appears in the form of
Nataraja the Divine Dancer.
Among the existing specimens in museums around
the world and in the temples of South India may be

Dancing Balakrishna
or Saint Sambandar

Shiva Nataraja

ARCHITECTURE
The Cholas temples were dedicated to
their favorite god in the Hindu pantheon.
Continuing
with the temple building
traditions of the Pallavas who preceded
them, the Cholas elevated Dravidian
temple design to greater heights.
The Chola style involves use of granite
to create design consisting of deities,
warriors, kings and dancers. Cholas built
huge temples.

GANGAIKAN
DA
CHOLESWAR
AR TEMPLE
(Thanjavur)

AIRAVATES
WARAR
TEMPLE
(Darasuram)

KAMPAHARES
WARAR
TEMPLE
(Tribhuvanam)

BRIHADESHWARA
TEMPLE

IN BRIEF

OTHER NAMES - Brihadeeswarar Temple;

Big Temple
LOCATION Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu
PROPER NAME - Peruvudaiyaar Temple
PRIMARY DEITY Lord Shiva
IMPORTANT FESTIVAL - Maha Shivaratri
ARCHITECTURE
STYLE

Dravidian
Architecture
DATE BUILT 10th Century AD
CREATOR Raja Raja Chola I

INTRODUCTION

Brihadeshwara temple or the Big temple in Tanjore is the

bestexample of excellent workmanship, grandeur and it has
stood the testimony of time with its magnificent central dome
which is a great attraction for one and all.

It is one of the largest temples in India and is an example of

Dravidian architecture during the Chola period.

Built for Raja Raja Chola I and completed in 1010 AD, the
temple turned 1000 years old in 2010.

The architect and engineer of the temple, Kunjara Mallan

Raja Raja Perumthachan is revered today as a father figure to
all craftsmen in his homeland of present-day Central Kerala.

The temple is part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site known

as the "Great Living Chola Temples.

CONSTRUCTION

The architect and engineer of the temple was Kunjara Mallan

Raja Raja Rama Perunthachan as stated in inscriptions found at
the temple.

The temple was built per ancient texts called Vaastu Shastras
and Agamas.

The vimanam (temple tower) is 216ft (66m) high and is the

tallest in the world. The Kumbam (the apex or the bulbous
structure on the top) of the temple is carved out of a single rock
and weighs around 80 tons.

There is a big statue of Nandi (sacred bull), carved out of a

single rock measuring about 16ft (4.9m) long and 13ft (4.0m)
high at the entrance. The entire temple structure is made out of
granite.

Plan
of
the
temp
le

TEMPLE COMPLEX

Temple complex lies on banks of one river from

which a manmade canal comes out making one
moat around this temple complex outside walls
built like one fortress.

There are several structures aligned axially that

are built inside this temple complex.

Main entrances Gopuram is exactly 30 meters

high and hence is smaller than Vimana. Under
Dravidian architecture generally Gopurams are
taller than Vimana and are main towers, which is
not in case of this temple and hence its unusual.

1. MAIN TEMPLE

A first rectangular surrounding wall, 270 m by 140 m, marks

the outer boundary.

The most important part of the temple is the inner mandapa

which is surrounded by massive walls that are divided into
levels by sharply cut sculptures and pilasters providing deep
bays and recesses.

The karuvarai, a Tamil word meaning the interior of the

sanctum sanctorum, is the inner most sanctum and focus of
the temple where an image of the primary deity, Shiva,
resides. Inside is a huge stone linga. The word Karuvarai
means "womb chamber" from Tamil word karu for foetus.
Only priests are allowed to enter this inner-most chamber.

The inner mandapa leads out to a rectangular mandapa and

then to a twenty-columned porch with three staircases leading

The Dakshina Meru created on the vimana shows

Siva and Parvati seated on a mountain with their
sons and boothganas in attendance. The vimana
with its 13 receding tiers looks like the mythical

2. TEMPLE DEITIES

Moolavar or primary deity of Brihadeeswarar Temple is

God Shiva.

All other deities, particularly ones, which are on places in

niches of outer wall or Koshta Moorthigal like
Dakshinamurthy, Chandra and Surya, are in huge
sizes.

This temple is one among rare temples, which have

statues of Ashtadikpaalakas or Guardians of directions
Indra, Agni, Nirrti, Varuna, Kubera, Isana, Yama, Vayu .

All of these are enshrined in one separate temple with its

location in respective direction. Only Agni, Vayu, Isana and
Varuna are in situ preserved.

Varahi
Amman
Shrine

3. MURALS
This temple has frescoes of Chola on
its walls around sanctum sanctorum,
which portrays God Shiva in many
actions, such as destroying fiend forts,
sending one white elephant for
transporting one devotee towards
heaven and dancing.
Due to continuous exposure towards
soot and smoke from camphor
burning and from lamps in sanctum

Two bas-reliefs of the Buddha, seated

under a tree and standing under a tree, in
the episode dealing with Siva as
Tripurantaka, found on the side wall of

The hollow interior of the vimana, a view

from below. Built of interlocking stones
without any binding material, the vimana has
not developed a crack or tilted even a few

MEENAKSHI
TEMPLE

IN BRIEF

LOCATION Madurai, Tamil Nadu

OTHER
NAMES

Meenakshi
Sundareswarar Temple; Meenakshi Amman
Temple
PROPER NAME Tiru-aalavai
PRIMARY DEITY Meenakshi (Parvati)
CONSORT Sundareswarar (Shiva)
ARCHITECTURAL
STYLE
Dravidian
architecture
NUMBER OF TEMPLES - 27

INTRODUCTION

Meenakshi Amman Temple is a historic Hindu

temple located on the southern bank of the Vaigai
River in the temple city of Madurai, Tamil Nadu,
India. It is dedicated to Parvati, known as Meenakshi,
and her consort, Shiva, here named Sundareswarar.
The name "Mnachchi" means fish-eyed and is
derived from the words "mna" meaning fish and
"aki" meaning eyes.
The temple forms the heart and lifeline of the 2,500year-old city of Madurai and is a significant symbol
for the Tamil people, mentioned since antiquity in
Tamil literature though the present structure was
built between 1623 and 1655 CE.

Temple wall painting

depicting its founding
legend.

TEMPLE COMPLEX

The temple complex is divided into a number of

concentric quadrangular enclosures contained by
high masonry walls. It is one of the few temples in
Tamil Nadu to have four entrances facing four
directions.
Ancient Tamil classics mention that the temple was
the center of the city and the streets happened to be
radiating out like lotus and its petals. The temple
prakarams (outer precincts of a temple) and streets
accommodate an elobrate festival calendar in which
dramatic processions circumabulate the shrines at
varying distances from the centre.
The complex is in around 45 acres (180,000m2).

An aerial view of
Madurai city from atop
the Meenakshi Amman
temple.

Plan of the
Meenakshi
Temple.

1. GOPURAMS

The temple is surrounded by gopurams (gateway

tower), - There are 14 gopuram the tallest of which,
the famous southern tower, rises to over 170ft
(52m) and was built in 1559.
The oldest gopuram is the eastern one, built by
Maravarman Sundara Pandyan during 1216-1238.
. Each gopuram is a multi-storeyed
structure,
covered with thousands of stone figures of animals,
gods and demons painted in bright hues.
The outer gopuram presents steeply pyramidal
tower encrusted with plaster figures, while the inner
gopuram serves as the entrance to the inner
enclosure of Sundareswarar shrine.

2. SHRINES

The central shrine of Meenakshi Amman

temple and her consort Sundareswarar are
surrounded by three enclosures and each
of these are protected by four minor towers
at the four points of the compass, the outer
tower growing larger and reaching higher to
the corresponding inner one.

The Meenakshi shrine has the emeraldhued black stone image of Meenakshi.

The tall sculpture of Ganesh carved of single

Madurai
Meenakshi
Amman
Temple North
Tower

The golden
shrine over
the
sanctum of
Meenakshi

3. HALL OF THOUSAND PILLARS

The Meenakshi Nayakkar Mandapam ("Hall of 1000 pillars")

has two rows of pillars carved with images of yali
(mythological beast with body of lion and head of an
elephant), commonly used as the symbol of Nayak power.

The Thousand Pillar Hall contains 985 (instead of 1000)

carved pillars.

The hall was built by Ariyanatha Mudaliar in 1569 and

blends engineering skill and artistic vision.

Each pillar in the hall is a carved monument of the

Dravidian sculpture.

Just outside this hall, towards the west, are the Musical
Pillars. Each pillar, when struck, produces a different musical
note.

A section of
the
Thousand
Pillar Hall

Sculptures
inside the
temple