ZOO 2403: GENERAL

ZOOLOGY
LECTURE 2:PRINCIPLES OF DEVELOPMENT,ANIMAL
ARCHITECTURE AND CLASSIFICATION

By: Miss Kasthuri Jewarethnam

WHAT IS AN ANIMAL?
Each type of organism has
specific features:
Unique cells
Unique tissues
Unique adaptations

The study of animals begins

with an understanding of
these features.

ANIMAL ARCHITECTURE
Levels of organization in organismal complexity.
There are 5 major grades of organization each
being more complex than the previous.

LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION
1. Protoplasmic level: occurs in
unicellular organisms. Organelles within
the cell carry out specialized functions.
Protozoans are examples.
2. Cellular level: Cells are aggregated and
cells engage in a division of labor, being
specialized for particular tasks. Examples:
Colonial protozoan groups (Animals that are
multicellular are referred to as Metazoans).

LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION
3. Cell-tissue level: Similar cells aggregate into
patterns or layers forming tissues. Nerve net in
Cnidarians (e.g. jellyfish) is example of a tissue.

LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION
4. Tissue-organ level: Organs are made up of
more than one kind of tissue and have a
specialized function.
Ex: Flatworms (Platyhelminthes) generally
represent this level having organs such as
eyespots and reproductive organs, but their
reproductive organs are organized into level 5 an
organ system.

Flatworm (Turbellaria)

LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION
5. Organ-system level: Organs work together to
perform functions. Most complex level of
organization.
Examples of organ systems include circulatory,
reproductive, digestive, respiratory. Most animal
phyla exhibit this level of organization.

ANIMAL SYMMETRY
There are three types of symmetry.
Spherical
Radial
Bilateral

ANIMAL SYMMETRY
Spherical symmetry occurs mainly among
protozoans.
Radial symmetry occurs among the
Cnidarians (jellyfish) and Echinoderms
(starfish, sea urchins).
Bilateral symmetry commonest form of
symmetry. Strongly associated with
cephalization or development of a head with
associated sensory and feeding apparatus.

ANIMAL SYMMETRY

A variety of descriptive terms are used to

describe orientation in bilateral animals.

ANIMAL BODY PLANES

DEVELOPMENT OF BODY PLANS

An animals body results from division of cells
during embryonic development.
Differences in developmental patterns have been
used to classify more complex animals so an
understanding of basic embryology is necessary
to follow this.

DEVELOPMENT OF BODY PLANS

Embryology

Zygote
Cleavage
Body cavities
Segmentation

Body plans
Animal tissues

PROCESS OF DEVELOPMENT
1. Once an egg is fertilized it becomes a zygote.
This cell divides into a large number of cells
called blastomeres.
2. Cleavage of cells proceeds until a fluid-filled
hollow ball of cells is formed. This is a
blastula.
3. In multicellular animals other than sponges the
blastula invaginates to begin forming the future
gut. At this stage the embryo is a gastrula.

THE ZYGOTE
The zygote is a fertilized
egg.
Combinations of two
different genetic codes.
Increases diversity and
changes of survival.

EMBRYONIC CLEAVAGE

CLEAVAGE PATTERNS
8-cell stage.
Two tiers of cells.
Top four cells may migrate.
Yes Spiral cleavage.
No Radial cleavage.

The simple action of cell

migration has major impacts
on what kinds of animals
this embryo becomes.

THE BLASTULA

TISSUE MIGRATION

THE GASTRULA

PROCESS OF DEVELOPMENT
4. The invaginating layer of cells form a
germ layer called the endoderm. The
endoderm surrounds and defines a body
cavity called the gastrocoel.
5. The cells not involved in forming the
invagination constitute another germ
layer the ectoderm. The ectoderm
surrounds a cavity called the blastocoel.

PROCESS OF DEVELOPMENT
6. When the invaginating gastrocoel forms a
complete tube by forming a second opening to
the outside it is then called the gut.

In the cnidarians (jellyfish, sea anemones) no

second opening develops.

PROCESS OF DEVELOPMENT
7. In most animals (but not cnidarians, which are
two-layered or diploblastic) a third germ layer
of cells called the mesoderm develops.
8. The mesoderm gives rise to many internal
organs. Organisms with mesoderm are called
triploblastic having three germ layers.

TISSUE DEVELOPMENT
The zygote divides, until different layers of cells form.
Each layer has different environmental conditions, and
reacts differently.
Each layer of cells becomes differentiated, into
different tissues.
Ectoderm
External layer of tissues.
Forms nervous system, tooth enamel, and epidermis.

Endoderm
Forms columnar cells lining of multiple organ systems.

Mesoderm
Forms connective tissue, muscles, gonads,

TISSUE FORMATION

BODY CAVITY FORMATION

Migration of animal
cells leads to the
formation of
different tissues.
Further migration
may lead to the
formation of a body
cavity.

PROCESS OF DEVELOPMENT
The way in which the mesoderm forms, and
whether or not a cavity (called a coelom)
develops within it, are important characters in
deciphering the relatedness of animal groups.

THE COELOME
Fluid-filled cavities provide a hydrostatic skeleton.
Tube-within-a-tube increases flexibility and
surface area.
The internal cavity is completely lined with
mesoderm.
Formation of mesenteries.

COELOMS
Triploblastic organisms (organisms with three
germ layers including mesoderm fall into one of
three different coelomic states:
Acoelomate: mesoderm fills the blastoceol, no cavity
occurs in the mesoderm. Flatworms and nemerteans.
Pseudocoelomate: mesoderm lines only outer edge
of blastocoel. No peritoneal lining develops.
Nematodes and rotifers.
Eucoelomate: Have a true coelom derived from
mesoderm and lined with peritoneum. Arthropods,
annelids, mollusks, echinoderms, vertebrates.

ACOELOMATE

PSEUDOCOELOMATE

EUCOELOMATE

ANIMAL CLASSIFICATION
Classification begins with tissues:
No true tissues (Phylum Porifera)
Two tissue layers (ectoderm and endoderm).
Phylum Cnidaria.

Three tissue layers (ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm).

Spiral cleavage (the protostomes)
Molt a cuticle (Ecdysozoa Phylum Nematoda/Arthropoda)
Does not molt a cuticle (Lophotrochozoa Phylum
Annelida/Rotifera/Mollusca)

Radial cleavage (the deuterostomes)

PROTOSTOMES AND
DEUTEROSTOMES
Within the eucolomates there are two major
evolutionary lineages that split early in the
history of animals and follow quite different
developmental pathways.
These are the protostomes mouth first and
deuterostomes mouth second.

PROTOSTOMES AND
DEUTEROSTOMES
Protostomes include the annelids, mollusks, and
arthropods.
Deuterostomes include the echinoderms and
vertebrates.

ANIMAL TISSUES
Made from animal cells, which are unique.
Eukartyotic cells.
No cell wall or chloroplasts.
Strictly heterotrophic.

Connective tissue
Binding and supportive function.

Muscular tissue
Responsible for contractions and movement.

Nervous tissue
Transmits information

ANIMAL CELLS

CELL STRUCTURE

SIMPLE CELLS

Simple Squamous Epithelium

Simple Cuboidal Epithelium

Simple Columnar Epithelium

STRATIFIED CELLS

CONNECTIVE TISSUE

Loose

Dense

Cartilage
Bone

Blood Cells

MUSCLE TISSUE

NERVOUS TISSUE