Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
3N
1 3N
h
2
2
U mri kri h ni 3 N
2 i 1
2
i 1
3N
1 3N
1 3N
2
U mri k ri rj
2 i 1
2 i 1, j 1
This energy is not a sum of single-particle energies. Thus, the calculation of the
partition function may look rather difficult. But a system of N coupled three-dimensional
oscillators is equivalent to a system of 3N independent one-dimensional oscillators.
the price to be paid is that the independent oscillators are not of the same frequency;
the normal modes of vibration of a solid have a wide range of frequencies. These
modes are not related to the motion of single atoms, but to the collective motion of all
atoms in the crystal vibrational modes or sound waves.
1
h
n 0
n 0
n 0
exp
1
2
h
cosech
1 exp h 2
2
1
1
h
ln Z1 h coth
2
2
2 exp h 1
This looks familiar: the same energy would have a photon of frequency .
The internal energy is not a directly measurable quantity, and instead we measure the
heat capacity:
CV T
Limits:
dU
U
exp h
2
k B 2
U 3 N E 3 Nk B h
dT
exp h 1 2
high T (kBT>>h ):
low T (kBT<<h ):
CV T 3 Nk B
equipartition
CV T 3 Nk B h exp h exp T
2
The Einstein model predicts much too low a heat capacity at low temperatures!
Nobel 1936
k BT h h
cs
hcs
6.6 10 34 2 103
7
T 1K ~
~
10
m 0.1m
k BT
1.4 10 34 1
These low-energy modes remain active at low temperatures when the high-frequency
modes are already frozen out. Large values of that correspond to these modes justify
the use of a continuum model.
There is a close analogy between photons and phonons: both are unconserved
bosons. Distinctions: (a) the speed of propagation of phonons (~ the speed of sound
waves) is by a factor of 105 less than that for light, (b) sound waves can be longitudinal as
well as transversal, thus 3 polarizations (2 for photons), and (c) because of discreteness
of matter, there is an upper limit on the wavelength of phonons the interatomic distance.
ck
s
2
1
G 3
6 2
cs
dG 12 2
g
3
d
cs
g d 3n D
0
3n
cs
1/ 3
Each normal mode is a quantized harmonic oscillator. The mean energy of each mode:
D
D
1
1
h g
E h
U g E T , d U 0
d
and
exp
1
2 exp h 1
0
0
is the total energy per unit volume. The U0 term comes from the zero-point motion of atoms.
It reduces the cohesive energy of the solid (the zero point motion in helium is sufficient to
prevent solidification at any T at normal pressure), but since it does not depend on T, it does
not contribute to C. Note that we ignored this term for phonons, where it is . In QED, this
unobservable term is swept under the rug by the process known as renormalization.
hcs
6.6 10 34 2 103
T
~ 1000 K
23
10
k B a 1.4 10 1 10
h g
4 5 k BT
U U0
d U 0
3
exp h 1
5 h 3 cs
0
dU 16 5 k B
3
C
T
3
dT
5 h 3cs
4
2
U U0 A
d U 0 3 Nk BT
Debye Temperature
The material-specific parameter is the
sound speed. If the temperature is
properly normalized, the data for
different materials collapse onto a
universal dependence:
4
T
16 5 k B
12 4
3
C
T
Nk
B
3
5
5 h 3cs
D
The normalization
factor is called the
Debye temperature:
hc 3n
D s
k B 4
1/ 3
3n
D cs
k BTD h D
L 4R T
2
L
T2
LSirius / LSun
RSirius
24
1.67
RSun
TSirius / TSun 2 2.4 / 1.4 2
h
6.6 10 34 1.7 1014
T
3000 K
23
2.7 k B
1.38 10 2.7
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
4 R J RS 4 r J r
2
S
J r
3.5 10 5
17
11
RS r
1.9 10 m
5
.
2
10
m
6
J RS
4.6 10
max
hc
6.6 10 34 3 108
3
1
.
1
10
m 1.1mm
23
5 k BT 5 1.38 10 2.7
max
k BT
2.8 1.38 10 23 2.7
11
2.8
1
.
58
10
Hz
34
h
6.6 10
hc
1.8 10 22 J
max
h max 1.04 10 22 J
The maxima u(,T) and u(,T) do not correspond to the same photon energy. As
increases, the frequency range included in unit wavelength interval increases as 2,
moving the peak to shorter wavelengths:
u , T d u , T d
c
d
d
2
u , T
8 hc
5
exp
1
hc
1
k BT
uT
8 5 k BT hc
4
k BT 2.7 k BT
3
3
N
15 hc 8 k BT 2.4 15 2.4
4
W
2
3 10 6
m
photons
16 photons
N
10
2
J
2.7 1.38 10 23 2.7
s m2
sm
J
PSun
4 10 26 W
J
2
4Rorbit
4 7.78 1011 m
52.6W / m 2
b) Recognizing that Sun's energy falls on the geometric disk presented to the Sun
by the planet, what is the total power incident on Jupiter from the Sun?
2
PJupiter J RJupiter
52.6W / m 2 7.15 10 7 m 8.4 1017 W
c) Jupiter rotates at a rather rapid rate (one revolution per 0.4 earth days) and
therefore all portions of the planet absorb energy from the Sun. Hence all
portions of the surface of this planet radiate energy outward. On the basis
of
this information find the surface temperature of Jupiter.
2
4
PJupiter 4RJupiter
TJupiter
TJupiter
PJupiter
1/ 4
4R 2
Jupiter
1/ 4
8.4 10 W
17
4 7.15 10 m 5.76 10 W / K m
7
123K
At what temperature will the pressure of the photon gas be equal to 105 Pa (=
one bar )?
At what temperature will the pressure of the photon gas be equal to 10-5 Pa?
The temperature at the Suns center is 107 K. What is the pressure of the
radiation? Compare it to the pressure of the gas at the center of the Sun, which
is 1011 bar.
Calculate the pressure of the Suns radiation on the Earths surface, given that
the power of the radiation reaching earth from the Sun is 1400 W/m 2.
4 4
P
T
3c
(b)
(c)
3cP
T
P=10 Pa
-5
1/ 4
(a) P=105 Pa
3 3 108 1 105
T
8
4
5
.
7
10
3 3 108 1 10 5
T
8
4
5
.
7
10
1/ 4
1.4 105 K
1/ 4
450 K
4 5.7 10 8 10 7
P
2.5 1012 Pa 2.5 10 7 bar
8
3 3 10
4
- at this T, the pressure of radiation is still negligible in the balance for mechanical equilibrium
(d)
1
uT
3
uT
4
I
c
4I
4 1400
6 10 6 Pa
8
3c 3 3 10
c
Jd u , T d
4
1
hc
d
max
5 k BT
hc
1
k BT
u , T d
8 hc
5
exp
c
c 8 hc 5k BT
1
2 c 5k BT
1
J d u , T d
d
d
5
4
4
4
exp
1
exp
1
hc
hc
5
J d
6.6 10
34
3 108
1
1 10 9 3.1 10 3 W/m 2
exp 5 1