4 - Fuels and Combustion

Topic 4
Fuels and combustion
Power Plants ME 471

Plants ME 471
FacultyPower
of Mechanical
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
Engineering
GIK Institute Pakistan
GIK Institute Pakistan
Introduction
Fuels available to the power generating sector

(utility industry) are
1. Fossil fuels
2. Nuclear fuels
Fossil Fuels:
Formed as a result of the slow decomposition
and chemical conversion of organic matter.
Fossil fuels are:
(1) Solids: coal
(2) Liquids: oil
(3) Gaseous: Natural gas.
Power Plants, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering GIK Institute Pakistan.
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A little background on fossil fuels

All of the fossil fuels were produced from the
fossilization of the carbohydrate compounds.
These compounds with a general formula of Cx(H2O)y
were formed by plants through photosynthesis,
converting solar energy into chemical energy.
Most of the fossil fuels were produced some 325
million years ago during the Carboniferous period.
The plant carbohydrates were converted under high
pressure and heat, in the absence of the oxygen,
into hydrocarbon compounds with a general formula
of CnHm.
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Coal (the most abundant fossil fuel)
Coal is classified into four grades (classes) as

done by the ASTM.
This classification is according to the degree

of metamorphism.
i.e. according to the change in form and
structure under the influences of heat, water
and pressure).
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Metamorphosis of coal
Peat: It is not a grade of coal. It is the first geological form of coal. It contains 90% moisture.
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Grades of coal
1. Anthracite: Highest grade of coal.
It is shiny, hard, dense brittle coal.
Fixed Carbon: 86 98 mass %.
Volatile matter: 2 14%.

Anthracite is further classified as
a. Meta-anthracite (C > 98%)
b. Anthracite (92 98% C)
c. Semi-anthracite (86 92% C)
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Grades of coal
2. Bituminous coal: (grayish black)
2nd grade coal and the largest group.
Fixed Carbon: 46 86 mass %.
Volatile matter: 20 40 mass %.
Heating value: 11000 14000 Btu/lbm
Bituminous coal is subdivided into 5 groups:
a. Low volatile. (has higher heating value)
b. Medium volatile.
c. High volatile A.
d. High volatile B.
e. High volatile C. (has lower heating value)
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Grades of coal
3. Sub-bituminous coal: (brownish)
Heating value: 8300 11500 Btu/lbm
Has high moisture content (15 30%)
Lower sulfur content.
4. Lignite: (lowest grade brown and laminar

in structure)
High moisture content (up to 30%).
Heating value: 6300 - 8300 Btu/lbm
Not economical to transport (used in mine mouth
plants).
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Coal analysis
Two types of analysis:
1. Proximate 2. Ultimate
Both give gravimetric fraction of components in coal.
Results of both types can be reported in many ways.
Moisture and ash contents can vary too muchSO
It is common practice to report coal analysis on
a. Moisture free basis
b. Dry ash (mineral-matter) free basis.
c. as mined basis. (moisture and ash are accounted for)
d. as received basis. (moisture and ash are accounted for)
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Proximate analysis (simplest coal analysis)

Fixed carbon:
Mass of original sample (Volatile matter + moisture
+ ash)
Volatile matter:
The portion of coal which escapes during a test, by
heating a sample at 1750oF for 7 minutes in the
absence of oxygen.
Moisture:
It is obtained by drying a sample in an oven in a
standard test.
Ash:
Determined by the combustion of dried coal at 1380oF.
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Ultimate analysis (a more scientific

method
Heating)values of the fuels are determines in a bomb
calorimeter.
Higher (gross) heating value: water is liquid in the products.
Lower heating value: water is vapor in the products.
LHV HHV mw h fg
Mw
LHV HHV
h fg
M H2
LHV HHV 9mH 2 h fg
O
HHV 14, 600C 62, 000 H 4050 S
8
The Dulong-type formula gives the approximate heating

values of anthracite and bituminous coals.
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Example
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80.7
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Coal firing
1.
2.
3.
4.
Main objective of coal firing mechanisms

is to have a high combustion rates.
Many different coal firing technologies
have been developed, over the years.
Mechanical stokers
Pulverized coal firing
Cyclone furnace
Fluidized bed combustion.
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Mechanical stokers
Wide variety of coals can be burnt.

Its use is limited to low capacities (<50
kg/s).
Capacity is limited due to low burning rate,
and furnace size (width).
Classifications of mechanical stokers:
1. Spreader stoker.
2. Traveling-grate stoker.
3. Underfed stoker.
4. Vibrating grate stoker.
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Spreader stoker
It is the most widely used among the mechanical
stokers and cover a big range of capacity (9.5 50
kg/s).
It can burn a wide variety of fuels, ranging from high
grade coal such as bituminous to lignite. Woodwaste,
pulpwood and bark.
Mechanism: Hopper gives fuel to the individual feederdistributor units, which have curved blades.
The coal is fed as a projectile on to a moving or
stationary grate.
Forced daft fans are always used to feed air into the
furnace in two ways. Undergrate air & overfire air.
Removal of ash is a major problem in case of stationary
grate.
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Spreader stoker
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Traveling grate stoker (chain grate)
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Traveling grate stoker (chain grate)

Coal may be injected or fed directly from
hopper.
Ash is deposited in an ash pit at one of the
end.
Continuously cleaning grates are designed
with reciprocating or vibrating design.
Continuous ash removal results in higher
combustion rates.
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Reciprocating grate stoker
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Underfed stoker
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Pulverized coal firing

It was a landmark in the history of steam generation.
No standard theory of coal grinding has been
developed and the process is based on empirical
correlations.
One Rittingers Law was published in 1867 which
states:
The energy required for the size reduction is proportional

to the new surface area created.
The run-of-mine coal (usually bituminous) is of the

size 8. Different sized coal is graded and it is used
for various purposes, e.g. 5in coal called lump
might be used for domestic purposes.
The coal is dried and ground in a pulverizing mill
before feeding to the furnace.
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Crushers
Many designs are available but important

ones are:
1. Ring crusher (granulator).
2. Hammermill.
Ring crusher
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Hammermill coal crusher
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Bradford breaker
It is used for large capacities, mainly at mine
mouth, but may also be used at plant site.
Foreign matter is easily rejected.
Crushing force is limited.
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Roll crushers
Not satisfactory for coal grinding.
Normally used for limestone breaking.
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Pulverizers
Stages of pulverization process:
1. Drying.
2. Pulverization.
3. Transportation to the burner.
The first two are accomplished by a feeding
system which controls the amount of fuel-feed
and air rates to meet the steam generators
demand.
The feeding system supplies dried coal to the
pulverizer, which is then carried with the air to
the burner.
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Pulverizers
Drying:
Dryers are the important integral part of the
pulverizers.
Air from the air-preheater is fed to the dryer
(pulverizer) at ~650oF.
Pulverizer:
Mechanism of grinding: Impact + crushing + attrition
1. Low speed (<75 rpm): the ball tube mill.
2. Medium speed (75 225 rpm): i) ball & race , ii) roll
& race.
3. High speed (>225 rpm): Impact/hammermill, attrition
mill.
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Low-speed ball tube mill

It is a tough hollow cylinder with conical end.
The inside of the cylinder has heavy-cast wear
resistant liners.
It is less than half filled with forged steel balls of
different sizes.
It reliable and requires less maintenance.
It is large and heavier in construction and
consumes more power.
Works less efficiently with wet coals.
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Medium speed ball and race, roll and

race
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Hammer beaters
These are mostly used with low rank coals
with high moisture content.
Flue gas is used for drying.
Classifiers:
After exit from the pulverizer the fine coal
enters a cyclone with internal vanes.
The heavier coal particles are separated
and fed back to the pulverizer.
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Pulverized coal system
Bin system
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Pulverized coal system

Direct firing
system:
More than one
systems can be
used to deal
with varying
loads
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Burners (for pulverized coal)

Purpose:
To mix the fuel-primary air mixture with secondary
air (main combustion air) and sustain a flame.
The fineness requirement varies (from burner to
burner) but not too much.
A usual case:
A pulverized coal with 80% passing a 200-mesh
screen
And 99.5% passing a 50-mesh screen possesses a
surface area of approximately 1500cm2/g with more
than 97% of that surface area passing through the
200-mesh screen.
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Arrangements:
1. Burners independent
of each other
creating individual
flame envelopes.
2. Burners arranged to
create a single flame
envelope.
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Initial ignition is achieved
by a light fuel oil jet,
which is itself started by
spark ignition.
Air fuel ratio is slightly
greater than the
stoichiometric.
Burners require periodic
maintenance, specially
the impeller which is
normally replaced every
year.
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Cyclone furnaces
What if you have to burn poor grade coal,
containing 6 25% ash content, up to 15%
volatile matter and high moisture content.
Cyclone furnace removes the ash as it forms.
But high sulfur and iron oxides are to be avoided.
These form iron and iron sulfide in the slag,
which easily solidify.
60% ash is removed as molten slag.
40% ash goes with the flue gasses (it was 80% in
case of pulverized coal firing).
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Cyclone furnaces (how they work)
Whirling motion results in

high heat release rate
volumetric densities.
3000oF is reached.
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Cyclone furnaces
Advantages:
1. Reduces erosion and fouling of the steam
generator surfaces.
2. No pulverization is required, crushing is sufficient.
3. Also suitable for other fossil fuels (oil and gas).
Disadvantages:
1. Formation of NOx.
2. Higher forced draft pressures (high power
requirements).
3. Maintenance of the burner (erosion resistant
materials are used as burner liners, e.g. tungsten
carbide).
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Fluidized bed combustion

The coal particles are fluidized (suspended in air)
and combusted.
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Minimum fluid velocity for fluidization:
Weight drag
V f2
g
V s
CD AC f
gc
2 gc
Total pressure drop P is:
P Pw Ps Pf
g
P Ps H (1 ) s
gc
1 Ho
1 o H
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Crushed coal (6-20mm) is used.
Desulfurization is carried out by the addition of
limestone.
1
CaCO3 +SO 2 + O 2 CaSO 4 +CO 2
2
The rate of reaction is maximum at bed temperature of

between 1500oF and 1600oF. But a practical fluidized bed
combustion temperature is 1380 1740 oF.
Reduction in 90% of SO2 can be achieved.
Lower stack temperatures can be achieved.
Problems: Feeding the coal and limestone. Control of
carryover.
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Liquid fuels
Liquid fossil fuels extracted as crude oil.
Emulsion firing of liquid fuels:
Emulsion: Suspension of finely divided fluid in an
another.
e.g. water in heavy oil.
It improves atomization.
Reduces soot and prevents fouling.
Reduces excess air requirements and improves
combustion efficiency.
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Coal-oil and coal-water mixtures (COM &

CWM)
Its done to reduce or replace the use of oils

as fuels.
These mixtures can be burnt in existing
systems.
COMs usually have 50% coal on QHV basis.
CWMs can replace oils altogether.
It contains 70 80% coal.
These are used in the form of slurry.
Can be easily handled, stored and transport.
Read 4 -10
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Synthetic fuels (synfuels)
These are gaseous and liquid fuels produced

from coal or biomass.
Abundance of coal and its unclean combustion
has resulted in efforts to make clean burning
synthetic fuels from coal.
1. Gaseous synfuels are made by coal gasification.
2. Liquid synfuels are made by coal liquefaction.
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Coal gasification
1. Town gas: The volatile portion of the coal is
heated and separated to be used as fuel gas.
It is a by-product of the coke making industry.
Coal is converted to coke by destructive
distillation (pyrolysis) to be used for the
smelting of iron.
Town gas is also known as coke-oven gas.
Its heating value is: 550 600 Btu/scf.
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Coal gasification
2. Producer gas: is obtained by partial combustion
of the coal, coke or wood in the presence of steam.
Its heating values are low, 100 180 Btu/scf.
Underground coal gasification
Low grade, un-extractable coal seams are burned
underground with insufficient air, only enough to
drive off volatile matter, any hydrogen and
produce CO.
This method allows use of thin-seam low grade
coal deposits which cannot otherwise be recovered
economically.
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Underground coal gasification
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Grades of coal gases
Coal gasification product gases are graded on the

basis of their heating values.
1. Low Btu (180 350 Btu/scf)
Reaction of coal with mixture of air and steam.
C+O 2 +3.76N 2 CO 2 +3.76N 2

CO 2 +C+3.76N 2 2CO+3.76N 2
C+H 2 O CO+H 2
The resulting gas mixture contains CO, H2, N2 and

some CO2. It may also contain some H2O, CH4 and
C2H6.
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2. Medium Btu (250 500 Btu/scf).
Reaction of coal with O2 and steam.
The reactions are the same as in previous case,
the only difference being the absence of N 2.
During the formation of these low and medium
Btu gases, certain tars and heavy oils are left
behind which are condensed by quenching and
are separated out.
H2S formed during the process is broken down to
form sulfur which is removed.
Solid coal residue, ash and dust is cleaned in a
cleaning process.
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3.
i.
High Btu (950 1000 Btu/scf)

Purified medium Btu gas can be converted into high Btu
methane gas in two steps:
Water gas shift conversion reaction:
CO is saturated with steam and passed over a catalyst.
CO+H 2 O CO 2 +H 2
ii.
The CO2 is removed.

Methanation:
iii.
The H2O is removed.

This gas is free from SO2. Its combustion has low
temperature due to H2O and CO2, hence low NOx
formation.
CO+3H 2 CH 4 +H 2 O
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Coal liquefaction
H2 is generated just as in the coal gasification.
This H2 is added to carbon to form hydrocarbons.
nC+(1+n)H 2 C n H 2n+2
Oil Shale: A fine-grained rock containing organic
matter called kerogen. It can be heated in retorts
(distillation vessels) to form synthetic crude oil
called syncrude or shale oil.
Tar sands: It is sand containing viscous bitumen.
Biomass. Study 4 12.
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The heat of combustion

Combustion & open system:
The first law of thermodynamic applied to an open
reactive system.
H R Q H P Wsf
Heat of reaction by enthalpy of formation.
C 2 H 6 +3.5O 2 2CO 2 3H 2 O
2C+3H 2 C 2 H 6 1211.38Btu/lb m
C+O 2 CO 2 +3846.7Btu/lb m
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Enthalpy of formation at standard

state
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Enthalpy of formation at different

temperatures
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Example 4 - 2
Find the heat released when:
1 lbm of ethane is burned in a furnace at
25oC with 20% less oxygen.
The products are at 1500K.
All hydrogen is oxidized.
5% heat is lost to the environment.
Pressure is not known, but it must be 1atm
for the evaluation of the reaction.
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The heat of combustion

Combustion & closed system: e.g. a cylinder or a bomb.
The first law of thermodynamic applied to an closed
reactive system.
U R Q U P Wnf
H U PV U nRoT
(nMh
R
nRoT ) Q (nMh f nRoT ) Wnf

P
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Heating values
Heating values are measured and tabulated by keeping
the reactants and the products at a standard state
throughout the reaction.
HV [ (nMh f ) (nMh f )]T 1
P
Numerical value of HV is different for any standard

temperature, state of water in the products and the
state of fuel in the reactants.
Higher heating value: Heat of reaction when water is
condensed in the reaction products.
Lower heating value: Heat of reaction when water is in
vapor state in the reaction products.
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Combustion temperatures
Some portion of heat of combustion increases
the enthalpy or internal energy of the gases
(hence the temperature).
Heat of reaction is calculated by using the
enthalpy of formation (for fuels whose exact
chemistry is well known) and by using heating
values for any fuel (blends or pure-substances).
The enthalpy of products is used to find out the
products temperature by trial & error.
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Adiabatic flame temperature

If all the heat of reaction increases the temperature of
the gases, this temperature will be the theoretically
maximum temperature the products can achieve.
This can be achieved, in an adiabatic rigid vessel. (no
work and no heat loss).
Thus such a product gas temperature is called adiabatic
flame temperature. (nMh )
(nMh )
Equivalence ratio affects the adiabatic flame

( F / A) actual
temperature.
( F / A) S
1; stochiometric
1; fuel lean
1; fuel rich
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Problems
Practice 1,2,3,4,5,8,10,16,23
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Questions
66/64

4 - Fuels and Combustion

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Topic 4

Fuels and combustion

Power Plants ME 471

Fuels available to the power generating sector

A little background on fossil fuels

Power Plants, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering GIK Institute Pakistan.

Coal (the most abundant fossil fuel)

Coal is classified into four grades (classes) as

This classification is according to the degree

Power Plants, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering GIK Institute Pakistan.

Volatile matter: 2 14%.

Power Plants, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering GIK Institute Pakistan.

4. Lignite: (lowest grade brown and laminar

Power Plants, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering GIK Institute Pakistan.

Power Plants, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering GIK Institute Pakistan.

Proximate analysis (simplest coal analysis)

Ultimate analysis (a more scientific

The Dulong-type formula gives the approximate heating

Power Plants, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering GIK Institute Pakistan.

Power Plants, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering GIK Institute Pakistan.

Power Plants, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering GIK Institute Pakistan.

Power Plants, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering GIK Institute Pakistan.

Main objective of coal firing mechanisms

Power Plants, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering GIK Institute Pakistan.

Wide variety of coals can be burnt.

Power Plants, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering GIK Institute Pakistan.

Traveling grate stoker (chain grate)

Power Plants, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering GIK Institute Pakistan.

Traveling grate stoker (chain grate)

Power Plants, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering GIK Institute Pakistan.

Reciprocating grate stoker

Power Plants, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering GIK Institute Pakistan.

Power Plants, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering GIK Institute Pakistan.

Pulverized coal firing

The energy required for the size reduction is proportional

The run-of-mine coal (usually bituminous) is of the

Power Plants, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering GIK Institute Pakistan.

Many designs are available but important

Hammermill coal crusher

Power Plants, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering GIK Institute Pakistan.

Power Plants, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering GIK Institute Pakistan.

Power Plants, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering GIK Institute Pakistan.

Low-speed ball tube mill

Power Plants, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering GIK Institute Pakistan.

Medium speed ball and race, roll and

Power Plants, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering GIK Institute Pakistan.

Pulverized coal system

Power Plants, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering GIK Institute Pakistan.

Pulverized coal system

Power Plants, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering GIK Institute Pakistan.

Burners (for pulverized coal)

Burners (for pulverized coal)

Power Plants, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering GIK Institute Pakistan.

Burners (for pulverized coal)

Cyclone furnaces (how they work)

Whirling motion results in

Fluidized bed combustion

Power Plants, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering GIK Institute Pakistan.

Fluidized bed combustion

Fluidized bed combustion

The rate of reaction is maximum at bed temperature of

Coal-oil and coal-water mixtures (COM &

Its done to reduce or replace the use of oils

Synthetic fuels (synfuels)