THERMODYNAMICS

THERMODYNAMICS
Thermodynamics,fieldofphysicsthat describes and correlates the physical
properties of macroscopic systems of matter and energy. The principles of
thermodynamics are of fundamental importance to all branches of science
and engineering.
Acentralconceptofthermodynamics is that of the macroscopic system,
defined as a geometrically isolable piece of matter in coexistence with an
infinite, unperturbable environment. The state of a macroscopic system in
equilibrium can be described in terms of such measurable properties as
temperature, pressure, and volume, which are known as thermodynamic
variables. Many other variables (such as density, specific heat,
compressibility, and the coefficient of thermal expansion) can be identified
and correlated, to produce a more complete description of an object and its
relationship to its environment.

THERMODYNAMICS
Whenamacroscopicsystem moves from one state of equilibrium to
another, a thermodynamic process is said to take place. Some processes
are reversible and others are irreversible. The laws of thermodynamics,
discovered in the 19th century through painstaking experimentation,
govern the nature of all thermodynamic processes and place limits on
them.

ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMIC

Thevocabularyofempirical sciences is often borrowed from daily
language. Thus, although the term temperature appeals to common sense,
its meaning suffers from the imprecision of nonmathematical language. A
precise, though empirical, definition of temperature is provided by the socalled zeroth law of thermodynamics as explained below.
Whentwosystemsarein equilibrium, they share a certain property. This
property can be measured and a definite numerical value ascribed to it. A
consequence of this fact is the zeroth law of thermodynamics, which states
that when each of two systems is in equilibrium with a third, the first two
systems must be in equilibrium with each other. This shared property of
equilibrium is the temperature.

ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMIC

Ifanysuchsystemis placed in contact with an infinite environment that
exists at some certain temperature, the system will eventually come into
equilibrium with the environmentthat is, reach the same temperature.
(The so-called infinite environment is a mathematical abstraction called a
thermal reservoir; in reality the environment need only be large relative to
the system being studied.)
Temperaturesaremeasured with devices called thermometers. A
thermometer contains a substance with conveniently identifiable and
reproducible states, such as the normal boiling and freezing points of pure
water. If a graduated scale is marked between two such states, the
temperature of any system can be determined by having that system
brought into thermal contact with the thermometer, provided that the
system is large relative to the thermometer.

1ST OF THERMODYNAMICS
Thefirstlawofthermodynamics gives a precise definition of
heat, another commonly used concept.

1ST OF THERMODYNAMICS
Whenanobjectisbrought into contact with a relatively colder object, a
process takes place that brings about an equalization of temperatures of
the two objects. To explain this phenomenon, 18th-century scientists
hypothesized that a substance more abundant at higher temperature
flowed toward the region at a lower temperature. This hypothetical
substance, called caloric, was thought to be a fluid capable of moving
through material media. The first law of thermodynamics instead
identifies caloric, or heat, as a form of energy. It can be converted into
mechanical work, and it can be stored, but is not a material substance.
Heat, measured originally in terms of a unit called the calorie, and work
and energy, measured in ergs, were shown by experiment to be totally
equivalent. One calorie is equivalent to 4.186 10 7 ergs, or 4.186
joules.

1ST OF THERMODYNAMICS
Thefirstlaw,then,is a law of energy conservation. It states that,
because energy cannot be created or destroyedsetting aside the later
ramifications of the equivalence of mass and energythe amount of
heat transferred into a system plus the amount of work done on the
system must result in a corresponding increase of internal energy in the
system. Heat and work are mechanisms by which systems exchange
energy with one another.

1ST OF THERMODYNAMICS
Inanymachinesomeamount of energy is converted into work;
therefore, no machine can exist in which no energy is converted into
work. Such a hypothetical machine (in which no energy is required for
performing work) is termed a perpetual-motion machine of the first
kind. Since the input energy must now take heat into account (and in a
broader sense chemical, electrical, nuclear, and other forms of energy as
well), the law of energy conservation rules out the possibility of such a
machine ever being invented. The first law is sometimes given in a
contorted form as a statement that precludes the existence of perpetualmotion machines of the first kind.

2ND OF THERMODYNAMIC
Thesecondlawofthermodynamics gives a precise definition of a
property called entropy. Entropy can be thought of as a measure of how
close a system is to equilibrium; it can also be thought of as a measure
of the disorder in the system. The law states that the entropythat is,
the disorderof an isolated system can never decrease. Thus, when an
isolated system achieves a configuration of maximum entropy, it can no
longer undergo change: It has reached equilibrium. Nature, then, seems
to prefer disorder or chaos. It can be shown that the second law
stipulates that, in the absence of work, heat cannot be transferred from
a region at a lower temperature to one at a higher temperature.

2ND OF THERMODYNAMIC
Thesecondlawposesan additional condition on thermodynamic
processes. It is not enough to conserve energy and thus obey the first
law. A machine that would deliver work while violating the second law is
called a perpetual-motion machine of the second kind, since, for
example, energy could then be continually drawn from a cold
environment to do work in a hot environment at no cost. The second law
of thermodynamics is sometimes given as a statement that precludes
perpetual-motion machines of the second kind.

THERMODYNAMIC CYCLES
Allimportantthermodynamic relations used in engineering are derived
from the first and second laws of thermodynamics. One useful way of
discussing thermodynamic processes is in terms of cyclesprocesses
that return a system to its original state after a number of stages, thus
restoring the original values for all the relevant thermodynamic
variables. In a complete cycle the internal energy of a system depends
solely on these variables and cannot change. Thus, the total net heat
transferred to the system must equal the total net work delivered from
the system.

THERMODYNAMIC CYCLES
Anidealcyclewouldbe performed by a perfectly efficient heat engine
that is, all the heat would be converted to mechanical work. The 19thcentury French scientist Nicolas Lonard Sadi Carnot, who conceived a
thermodynamic cycle that is the basic cycle of all heat engines, showed
that such an ideal engine cannot exist. Any heat engine must expend
some fraction of its heat input as exhaust. The second law of
thermodynamics places an upper limit on the efficiency of engines; that
upper limit is less than 100 percent. The limiting case is now known as a
Carnot cycle,

THIRD LAW OF THERMODYNAMIC

Thesecondlawsuggests the existence of an absolute temperature scale
that includes an absolute zero of temperature. The third law of
thermodynamics states that absolute zero cannot be attained by any
procedure in a finite number of steps. Absolute zero can be approached
arbitrarily closely, but it can never be reached.

THIRD LAW OF THERMODYNAMIC

Thesecondlawsuggests the existence of an absolute temperature scale
that includes an absolute zero of temperature. The third law of
thermodynamics states that absolute zero cannot be attained by any
procedure in a finite number of steps. Absolute zero can be approached
arbitrarily closely, but it can never be reached.