Presented By:

09-ME-02 Muhammad Zeeshan Bhatti

09-ME-74 Muhammad Saad Siddique
09-ME-98 Sikander Waqas
09-ME-110 Sarmad Mukhtar
09-ME-112 Muhammad Usman
09-ME-118 Hassan Raza
09-ME-130 Muhammad Hassan Zafar
09-ME-132 Muhammad Hasan Iqbal

Space Stations
Presented to: Sir Atta-ur-
Rehman
Definition

A spacecraft or satellite designed to

be occupied by a crew and used as a
base for the exploration, observation,
and research of space.
Types of Satellites
• Communications Satellites
• Navigation Satellites
• Weather Satellites
• Military Satellites
• Scientific Satellites
 Communications Satellites

It is an earth-orbiting spacecraft
that provides communication over long
distances and receive and transmit radio,
telephone and television signal around the
world.

The Syncom 4 communications satellite was launched

from the space shuttle Discovery.
 Communications Satellite
Echo Satellite
Echo and Echo II were early
communications satellites
launched by the United States in
the early 1960s. The large,
mylar-coated balloons bounced
radio signals back to Earth. The
Echo satellites paved the way for
later, more sophisticated
communications satellites.
Navigation Satellite
An artificial satellite, used as an aid
to navigation, that follows a fixed orbit
made known to navigators on ships and
aircraft.
• A navigation satellite sends continuous radio signals
to Earth. These signals contain data that a special
radio receiver on Earth translates into information
about the satellite’s position. The receiver further
analyzes the signal to find out how fast and in what
direction the satellite is moving and how long the
signal took to reach the receiver. From this data, the
receiver can calculate its own location.
 Navigation Satellites
Global Positioning System (GPS)
• The Navstar Global Positioning System
(GPS) is a U.S. network of 24 satellites in
orbit around the earth that provides
users with information about their
position and movement. A GPS receiver
computes position information by
comparing the time it takes for signals
from three or four different GPS satellites
to reach the receiver.
Global Orbiting Navigation Satellite System
(GLONASS)
• The Global Orbiting Navigation Satellite
System (GLONASS) of the Russian
Federation consists of 24 satellites and
provides accuracy similar to GPS.
Weather Satellite
A satellite that records cloud distribution
and temperature to help in predicting weather
patterns i.e. Weather forecasting.

• Weather satellites carry cameras and other instruments

pointed toward Earth’s atmosphere. They can provide
advance warning of severe weather and are a great aid to
weather forecasting. NASA launched the first weather
satellite, Television Infrared Observation Satellite (TIROS) 1,
in 1960. TIROS 1 transmitted almost 23,000 photographs of
Earth and its atmosphere. The National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) operates three satellites
that collect data for long-term weather forecasting.
 Weather Satellites

GOES Weather Satellite

Broadcasters use data from meteorological satellites to predict weather
and to broadcast storm warnings when necessary. Satellites such as the
Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES) collect
meteorological and infrared information about the atmosphere and the
ocean. A camera on the GOES is continuously pointed at Earth,
broadcasting satellite images of cloud patterns both day and night.
Here, the GOES-C satellite is being encapsulated inside its payload
fairing aboard a Delta rocket.
Weather Satellites
Satellite Image of Earth
• Meteorologists find it useful to look at weather
on a very large scale. Because geostationary
weather satellites can only make images of
relatively small portions of the Earth's surface,
several images were combined to form this
picture of North and South America.
Military Satellites
It is an artificial satellite used
for military communication,
surveillance and controlling
weapons.
• The Defense Satellite Communications
System (DSCS) of U.S. military consists of
five spacecraft in geostationary orbit that
transmit voice, data, and television signals
between military sites. The Defense
Support Program (DSP) uses satellites that
are intended to give early warning of
missile launches. DSP was used during the
Persian Gulf War (1991) to warn of Iraqi
Scud missile launches.
Scientific Satellites
Earth-orbiting satellites can provide data to map
Earth, determine the size and shape of Earth,
and study the dynamics of the oceans and the
atmosphere. Scientists also use satellites to
observe the Sun, the Moon, other planets and
their moons, comets, stars, and galaxies. The
Hubble Space Telescope is a general-purpose
observatory launched in 1990. Some scientific
satellites orbit bodies other than Earth. The Mars
Global Surveyor, for example, orbits the planet
Mars.
 Scientific Satellites
Solar Maximum Mission
The Solar Maximum Mission Satellite was a scientific satellite designed to study
solar radiation. Launched in early 1980, the craft failed later in the year. It was
repaired and relaunched by the space shuttle in 1984, collecting information
until 1989, when it was destroyed by a solar flare. Information collected by the
satellite indicated that the sun’s corona experiences an unexpectedly high
amount of violent activity related to sunspot cycling. Data also showed that
sunspots reduce the amount of solar energy reaching the earth’s atmosphere.
Parts of a Space Station
 Space
Explorations
The quest to discover the universe beyond Earth
History
Yuri Gagarin (1934-1968), Soviet cosmonaut and
first human to fly in space. Gagarin flew into
space aboard Vostok 1 on April 12, 1961, and
made one orbit of the earth.
History
• In space, the motions of satellites and
interplanetary spacecraft are described by the
laws of motion formulated by German
astronomer Johannes Kepler, in the 17th century.
For example, one of Kepler’s laws states that the
closer a satellite is to Earth, the faster it orbits.
History
• Konstantin Tsiolkovsky envisioned how to use
rockets to voyage into space.
First Artificial Satellite
The first artificial satellite to orbit Earth was
Sputnik 1. Built by the Soviet Union and
launched on October 4, 1957, Sputnik had an
elliptical orbit, ranging in altitude from 225 to
950 km (140 to 590 mi). Sputnik broadcast a
steady signal of beeps for 21 days and burned
up in Earth’s atmosphere upon reentry on
January 4, 1958.
Unpiloted Lunar Missions
Luna Lander
• Missions 9 and 13 of the Soviet Luna program landed
on the Moon, then released a small capsule. The
capsule had a weighted base, so it rolled upright. It
then opened its flaps, exposing a television camera
and communications antennas.
Unpiloted Lunar Missions
Lunokhod Rover
• In 1970 and 1973 the Soviet Luna program delivered
two rovers to the moon. These eight-wheeled robotic
explorers rolled down ramps to leave their parent
spacecraft (Luna 17 and Luna 21). The Lunokhods
carried cameras, soil analyzers, and solar panels for
power.
Unpiloted Lunar Missions
Lunar Orbiter
• Lunar Orbiter, series of United States spacecraft
that orbited the moon between August 1966 and
January 1968. The primary mission of the Lunar
Orbiters was to provide detailed photographs of
the Apollo Zone, the region of the moon where
the Apollo astronauts planned to land.
Unpiloted Lunar Missions
Soyuz Mission
• The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR)
flew the first piloted Soyuz mission in 1967. Over
the next three decades more than 70 Soyuz
spacecraft were used to send cosmonauts into
space. One of these spacecraft is shown here,
along with some of the cosmonauts who have
flown on Soyuz missions.
Scientific Satellites
Earth-Observing Satellites
• Beginning in 1960 with the launch of U.S. Tiros I,
weather satellites have sent back television images of
parts of the planet. The first satellite that could
observe most of Earth, NASA’s Earth Resources
Technology Satellite 1 (ERTS 1, later renamed Landsat
1), was launched in 1972.
Scientific Satellites
Satellite Meteorology
• Earth-observing satellites can provide images of large
weather systems, such as Hurricane Gloria, shown
here. These pictures reveal patterns and movement
that provide clues about what the storm might do
next.
 Astronomical Satellites
Hubble Space Telescope
• The Hubble Space Telescope, free of the distorting effects of the earth’s
atmosphere, has an unprecedented view of distant galaxies. Placed in
orbit in 1990, scientists discovered soon after the telescope became
operational that its 240-cm (94.5-in) primary mirror was flawed. However,
a repair mission completed by space shuttle astronauts in December 1993
successfully installed corrective optics which compensated for the flawed
mirror.
Scientific Satellites
Compton Gamma Ray Observatory
• Astronauts aboard the space shuttle Atlantis launched this
huge gamma-ray telescope into orbit in 1991. The Compton
Gamma Ray Observatory (GRO) helps astronomers detect
and measure gamma rays, radiation with wavelengths even
shorter than X rays.
 Planetary Studies
Important Space Probes
Name Country Launch Date Target
Luna 2 USSR Sept. 12, 1959 Moon
Luna 3 USSR Oct. 4, 1959 Moon
Ranger 6 US Jan. 28, 1964 Moon
Luna 9 USSR Jan. 31, 1966 Moon
Surveyor 1 US May 30, 1966 Moon
Surveyor 3 Apr. 17, 1967
US Moon
Surveyor 5 Nov. 8, 1967
US Moon
Luna 16 USSR Sept. 12, 1970 Moon
Luna 17 USSR Nov. 10, 1970 Moon
Mars 2 USSR May 19, 1971 Mars
Mars 3 May 28, 1971
USSR Mars
Mariner 9 US May 30, 1971 Mars
Pioneer 10 US Mar. 2, 1972 Jupiter
Pioneer 11 Apr. 5, 1973 Jupiter
US
Saturn
Mariner 10 US Nov. 3, 1973 Mercury
 Planetary Studies
Name Country Launch Date Target

Venera 9 USSR June 8, 1975 Venus

Venera 10 USSR June 14, 1975 Venus
Viking 1 US Aug. 20, 1975 Mars
Viking 2 US Sept. 9, 1975 Mars
Voyager 1 US Sept. 5, 1977 Jupiter
Saturn
Voyager 2 US Aug. 20, 1977 Jupiter
Saturn
Uranus
Neptune
Venera 11 USSR Sept. 9, 1978 Venus
Venera 12 USSR Sept. 14, 1978 Venus
Pioneer Venus 1 US May 20, 1978 Venus
(Pioneer 12)
Pioneer Venus 2 US Aug. 8, 1978 Venus
(Pioneer 13)

Magellan US May 4, 1989 Venus

Galileo US Oct. 18, 1989 Jupiter

 Planetary Studies

Name Country Launch Date Target

Mars Global US Nov. 7, 1996 Mars

Surveyor
Mars US Dec. 4, 1996 Mars
Pathfinder
Cassini US Oct. 15, 1997 Saturn
Planetary Studies

Magellan Spacecraft
• In 1989 the Magellan probe became the first interplanetary
spacecraft to be launched from the space shuttle. Magellan is
shown here in the cargo bay of the space shuttle Atlantis in
preparation for mission launch. The dish-shaped top of the
spacecraft is a high-gain antenna, which Magellan used to
send information about Venus back to Earth.
Planetary Studies

Mars Landing Site

• Two U.S. Viking landers landed on the surface of Mars in
1976. The spacecraft collected and analyzed samples of the
Martian soil, rock, and atmosphere, and took pictures of the
surface of Mars.
Planetary Studies
Mars Climate Orbiter
• United States spacecraft launched Mars Climate Orbiter in
1998 to explore the planet Mars.
Planetary Studies

Sojourner on Mars
• The Sojourner rover explores the surface of Mars near the
Mars Pathfinder lander on July 9, 1997. The rover was
equipped with several cameras, an Alpha Proton X-ray
Spectrometer to analyze the chemical composition of rocks
such as those nicknamed “Barnacle Bill” and “Yogi,” and a
solar panel to provide power. Its springless suspension
system allowed it to travel over obstacles 13 cm (5 in) tall, or
about the diameter of one of its wheels.
Planetary Studies
• Galileo Orbiter and Probe
The Galileo spacecraft, launched in 1989 with the ultimate
destination of Jupiter, carried a number of scientific
instruments on board to study the solar system while on
route to Jupiter, including a radiometer and ultraviolet,
extreme ultraviolet, and near-infrared spectrometers, which
take pictures of light outside the visible range. Upon arrival at
Jupiter in 1995, Galileo released a probe that plunged into the
planet’s fiery atmosphere, transmitting vital scientific data
before it was destroyed.
Planetary Studies

Cassini-Huygens Mission
• The Cassini-Huygens mission, shown here in an artist's
depiction, was launched in 1997 and arrived at the planet
Saturn in 2004. Cassini, the orbiter part of the spacecraft, will
circle Saturn for several years while studying the planet and
its moons. Huygens is a probe that plunged into the
atmosphere of Titan, Saturn's largest moon, and returned
photographs from its surface in 2005.
Solar System Missions
Solar Maximum Mission Satellite
• The Solar Maximum Mission Satellite was a scientific satellite
designed to study solar radiation. Launched in early 1980,
the craft failed later in the year. It was repaired and
relaunched by the space shuttle in 1984, collecting
information until 1989, when it was destroyed by a solar
flare. Information collected by the satellite indicated that the
corona displays an unexpectedly high amount of violent
activity related to sunspot cycling. Data also showed that
sunspots reduce the amount of solar energy reaching the
earth’s atmosphere.
First Woman In Space
• The Soviet Union sent a dark-eyed young blond
named Valentina Tereshkova into space Sunday
June 16, 1963 as the world's first woman
cosmonaut.
 Crewed Spacecraft Accidents
Date Mission

March 16, 1966 Gemini 8

January 27, 1967 Apollo 1

April 24, 1967 Soyuz 1

April 11-17, 1970 Apollo 13

June 30, 1971 Soyuz 11

January 28, 1986 Space shuttle Challenger, STS-51L

February 1, 2003 Space shuttle Columbia, STS-107

Piloted Spaceflight
• Vostok and Mercury
The Soviets achieved that milestone on April 12, 1961, when
a 27-year-old pilot named Yuri Gagarin made a single orbit of
Earth in a spacecraft called Vostok (East).
Piloted Spaceflight
Voskhod and Gemini
• Ten piloted Gemini spacecraft were launched between March
1965 and November 1966. Unlike earlier American
spacecraft, Gemini capsules were designed to carry two
astronauts. Before returning to the earth, the crew jettisoned
the resource compartment and the deorbiting system. The
reentry module floated to a watery splashdown on earth
using a parachute.
Piloted Spaceflight
Soyuz and Early Apollo
• By 1967 the United States and the USSR were each preparing to test
the spacecraft they planned to use for lunar missions. The Soviets had
created Soyuz (Union), an Earth-orbiting version of the craft they
hoped would fly cosmonauts to and from the Moon.
• Astronauts used the command and service modules of the Apollo
spacecraft to orbit the earth, travel to the moon, and return to the
earth. The command module housed the astronauts during take-off
and reentry into the earth's atmosphere. The service module carried
consumable supplies such as fuel, food, and water, and was detached
from the command module before the astronauts reentered the
atmosphere.
Apollo Program
• Apollo Program, American manned lunar-space program
designed to land an astronaut on the Moon and return him
safely to Earth, as well as to overtake the former Soviet
Union in the race to dominate space exploration. Conducted
between May 1961 and December 1972 by the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), the program
successfully landed Neil Armstrong—the first person to walk
on the Moon—and 11 other astronauts on the Moon.
Piloted Spaceflight
Humans On the Moon
• To achieve Kennedy’s challenge for a Moon landing before
the end of the 1960s, Apollo 9 in March 1969 tested the
entire Apollo spacecraft, including the lunar module, in Earth
orbit. On July 16, 1969, the crew of Apollo 11—Neil
Armstrong, Mike Collins, and Buzz Aldrin—headed for the
Moon to attempt the lunar landing. Millions of people around
the world watched as first Neil A. Armstrong and then Edwin
E. Aldrin, Jr., stepped onto the surface of the moon on July 20,
1969.
Piloted Spaceflight
Working on the Moon
• At the Taurus-Littrow landing site, astronaut Harrison H.
Schmitt stopped his lunar-roving vehicle to work. He and
fellow astronaut Eugene A. Cernan collected 116 kilograms
(255 pounds) of lunar samples during the Apollo 17 mission.
Launched on December 6, 1972, Apollo 17 was the final
mission of the Apollo space program.
Piloted Spaceflight
Salyut Space Stations
• Launched into orbit in 1982, the Soviet space station Salyut 7
was plagued by electrical and propulsion problems. Despite
these problems, cosmonauts stayed aboard the space station
for as long as eight months at a time. Salyut 7 was
abandoned in 1986, but cosmonauts were able to salvage
some supplies and equipment from it for the Mir space
station, launched later that year. In 1991 Salyut 7 fell back to
Earth.
Piloted Spaceflight

Skylab
• An overhead view of Skylab shows the space station above a
cloud-covered earth. Launched by the United States in 1973,
Skylab orbited the earth continuously for six years and
provided scientific data about both the sun and the earth.
During three separate missions, astronauts lived aboard
Skylab and performed scientific experiments as well as
monitoring their own health in space. This photograph was
taken by the crew of the Skylab Command Service Module
(CSM) during a final fly-by before the return home.
Piloted Spaceflight

Soviet Space Station Mir

• The Soviet space station complex Mir, seen here from an
approaching spacecraft, was put into orbit on February 19,
1986. Two cosmonauts spent a record 366 days in space
aboard the Mir.
Piloted Spaceflight
Space Shuttle Discovery
• Poised prior to launch, the space shuttle Discovery awaits
takeoff. The orbiter (the airplane-shaped craft) is strapped to
two tall solid-fueled booster rockets and a giant tank of liquid
fuel for the orbiter’s three rocket engines. The boosters and
tank are used up and fall away from the orbiter as it reaches
orbit.
Piloted Spaceflight
Space-Shuttle Orbiter
• The space shuttle is the first reusable space vehicle, designed to
perform up to 100 missions with only minor maintenance. The shuttle
orbiter resembles an airplane in appearance, but it actually performs
quite differently. The shuttle leaves the earth vertically, strapped to a
launch rocket for the first stages of liftoff. The shuttle’s main engines
provide part of the thrust needed to lift the shuttle into orbit while the
rest of the power is provided by the launch rocket. After the mission is
completed, the shuttle orbiter returns to the earth in a horizontal
position similar to an airplane, but it glides back to earth to land on a
conventional runway using no engine power.
Piloted Spaceflight

China’s Space Program

• In 2003 China became the third nation to send a piloted spacecraft
into an Earth orbit. Astronaut Yang Liwei was launched into space on
October 15 aboard the spacecraft Shenzhou 5 (Divine Vessel 5). The
spacecraft orbited the Earth 14 times in 21 hours before landing. The
successful mission signaled that China, with a budget for its space
program comparable to Russia’s, had become a significant player in
space exploration. China also announced plans to send an unpiloted
spacecraft to the Moon.
Piloted Spaceflight
SpaceShipOne (Private Spaceflight)
• SpaceShipOne sits on its landing gear at Mojave,
California, before its historic flight. On June 21, 2004,
SpaceShipOne became the first privately funded
piloted craft to fly in space.
Piloted Spaceflight
Spacewalker and Manned
Maneuvering Unit
• Astronaut Bruce McCandless floats free
above the earth in a manned
maneuvering unit (MMU) during a shuttle
mission. McCandless helped design and
was the first to fly the MMU, which is
propelled by small nitrogen thrusters
controlled by the astronaut’s hands.
Because no umbilical cord attaches the
astronaut to the spacecraft, it gives
much greater mobility than was available
to earlier spacewalkers.
Space station Design Concerns
• Flight Paths
• Navigation and Guidance
• Propulsion (Usually use rockets)
• Power Supply (Usually use Solar Panels)
• Crew Support
• Work in Space
• Cost
Politics And Space Race Cold War
On May 25, 1961, US President Kennedy said,
“I believe that this nation should commit
itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is
out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning
him safely to the Earth.”
This was the genesis of the Apollo program.
Although there were other motivations for going
to the Moon—scientific exploration among them
—Cold War geopolitics was the main push behind
the Moon race. Cold War competition also
affected the unpiloted space programs of the
United States and USSR.
The High Cost of Space Exploration
Cost has always been a central factor in the
political standing of space programs. The
enormous expense of the Apollo Moon program
(roughly $100 billion in 1990s dollars)
prompted critics to say that the program could
have been carried out far more cheaply by
robotic missions. While that claim is
oversimplified—no robot has yet equaled the
performance of a skilled observer—it reveals
how vulnerable space programs are to budget
cuts.
Satellite Orbits

Path or trajectory of a satellite
through space is called orbit.

• Geostationary Equatorial Orbit (GEO)

• Low Earth Orbit (LEO)
• Medium Earth Orbit (MEO)
• Polar Orbits
• Sun-Synchronous Orbits
Geostationary Equatorial Orbit
• Satellites in geostationary equatorial orbit (GEO)
orbit Earth around the equator at a very specific
altitude that allows them to complete one orbit
in the same amount of time that it takes Earth to
rotate once. As a result, these satellites stay
above one point on Earth’s equator at all times.
Direct-broadcast television satellites are in GEO.
Low Earth Orbit (LEO)
• A satellite in low Earth orbit (LEO) orbits at an altitude
of 2,000 km (1,200 mi) or less. Almost every satellite
enters a LEO after it is launched. If a satellite’s
mission requires an orbit other than LEO, it uses
rockets to move into its final orbit.
• A low Earth orbit minimizes the amount of fuel
needed. In addition, a satellite in LEO can obtain
clearer surveillance images and can avoid the Van
Allen radiation belts, which contain harmful high-
energy particles. It needs less powerful signals to
communicate with Earth than satellites with higher
orbits. A signal to or from a low Earth orbit also
reaches its destination more quickly, making LEO
satellites especially good for transmitting data.
Medium Earth Orbit (MEO)

• Medium Earth orbit (MEO) satellites orbit at an altitude

about 10,000 km (about 6,000 mi) and balance the
benefits and problems between LEO and GEO. The
most common uses of MEO are by navigation and
communication satellites. The U.S. navigation system
NAVSTAR Global Positioning System (GPS), the
Russian Global Navigation Satellite System
(GLONASS), and Odyssey, a private U.S.
communications satellite program, all use MEO.
Polar Orbits

• Satellites in polar orbits orbit around Earth at right

angles to the equator over both the North and South
poles. Polar orbits can occur at any altitude, but most
satellites in polar orbits use LEOs. Two polar satellites
belonging to the U.S. National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration provide weather
information for all areas of the world every six hours.
The satellites also map ozone levels (see Ozone Layer)
in the atmosphere, including the level over the poles.
Landsat is a U.S. government remote-sensing satellite
system that operates in polar orbit. Scientists often
use Landsat to view agricultural phenomena such as
deforestation and crop blight. Transit, the first
satellite-based navigation system, used polar orbits in
order to support navigation around the world,
especially for submarines in the polar regions.
Sun-Synchronous Orbits

• A satellite in a Sun-synchronous orbit always passes

over a certain point of Earth when the Sun is at the
same position in Earth’s sky. A Sun-synchronous
satellite has a retrograde orbit (it moves clockwise
around Earth), orbits in a low Earth orbit, and orbits at
a specific angle with respect to Earth’s equator (about
98°). The satellite crosses each latitude about 1° east
of where it crossed the latitude the previous day.
Thus, the satellite stays synchronized with the location
of the Sun relative to Earth. Sun-synchronous orbits
are useful for satellites photographing Earth, because
the Sun will be at the same angle each time the
satellite passes over a point on Earth.
First Experimental Space Station
On January 16, 1969, two Russian
cosmonauts were transferred from
Soyuz 5 into Soyuz 4.
First Space Station
On April 19, 1971, the Soviet Union launched
Salyut 1, the first space station. On April 24th,
Soyuz 10, carrying three cosmonauts, becomes
the first craft to dock with the station.
First Living Creature In Space
The Soviet Union also launched the first living
creature, a dog named Laika, into space on
November 3, 1957. Laika flew inside a
pressurized chamber aboard the satellite Sputnik
2. She died from overheating and panic after a
few hours in orbit. Sputnik 2 reentered Earth’s
atmosphere and burned up on April 14, 1958.
First Retrieved Object From Space

On August 10, 1960, the United
States launched a surveillance satellite,
Discoverer 13, that carried the first
artificial object ever retrieved from
space. While Discoverer 13 remained in
orbit it ejected a capsule earthward,
which was then recovered by a team
from the U.S. Navy. Later satellites
carried cameras that photographed
parts of Earth and then ejected
recoverable containers of the exposed
film toward Earth.
 First U.S. Satellite
The United States launched its first satellite, Explorer 1, on
January 31, 1958. Explorer 1 had a highly elliptical orbit, ranging
in altitude from 360 to 2,500 km (220 to 1,600 mi). Scientists
discovered the Van Allen radiation belts using data transmitted
back to Earth from Explorer1.
First U.S. Space Station
Skylab, first American space station. In 1973 the
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
(NASA) launched the 100-ton Skylab module into
orbit around the earth from the Kennedy Space
Center in Cape Canaveral, Florida.
Mir
Mir, Russian space station designed to provide
long-term accommodations for crew members
while in orbit around Earth. Launched into orbit
on February 19, 1986, Mir was deliberately
discarded in the Pacific Ocean on March 23,
2001.
Global Positioning System
Launching the GPS Satellite
• A Navstar global positioning system
(GPS) satellite is launched into orbit
by a Delta rocket. GPS satellites
continuously transmit data about the
satellite’s position and the current
time. Military and civilian navigators
use the information gathered from
several satellites to compute their
own position.
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiver with Map
• A Global Positioning System (GPS)
receiver links with an array of
satellites to give users their
location. Many GPS units have
enough memory capacity to store
maps so that users can pinpoint
their map location and use it to plot
routes to their next destination.
 Global Positioning System
Finding Location with GPS
• Global Positioning System (GPS) satellites orbit high above the surface of Earth at
precise locations. They allow a user with a GPS receiver to determine latitude,
longitude, and altitude. The receiver measures the time it takes for signals sent from
the different satellites (A, B, and C) to reach the receiver. From this data, the receiver
triangulates an exact position. At any given time there are multiple satellites within the
range of any location on Earth. Three satellites are needed to determine latitude and
longitude, while a fourth satellite (D) is necessary to determine altitude.
FUTURE OF
SPACE
STATIONS
International Space Station

A cooperative effort of 16 nations, the

International Space Station (ISS) is the largest space
station ever constructed. It serves as an orbiting
research platform. This photograph was taken from
the space shuttle Atlantis.
 Completed ISS (Yet Incomplete)
Artist's Impression of the Completed International Space Station
• This drawing of the International Space Station (ISS) shows how it
will look when it is finally completed. The finished ISS will be 88.4 m
(290 ft) long, with solar panels that span 108.5 m (356 ft) and
cover a greater area than a football field. There will be six
laboratories housing research facilities.

Incomplete Complete
Single-stage-to-orbit (SSTO) Vehicle
• A single-stage-to-orbit (or SSTO) vehicle reaches orbit
from the surface of a body without jettisoning hardware,
expending only propellants and fluids. The term usually, but
not exclusively, refers to reusable vehicles.
• NASA plans to operate the space shuttle fleet at least through
the year 2012 before phasing in a replacement—possibly a
single-stage-to-orbit (SSTO) vehicle. However, some experts
predict that the SSTO is too difficult a goal to be achieved
that soon, and that a different kind of second-generation
shuttle would be necessary—perhaps a two-stage, reusable
vehicle much like the current shuttle.
The Best Targets for Future
• The Sun
Upcoming missions will investigate the sun and the powerful solar
wind that it hurls toward the planets
• Venus and Mercury
The inner planets are full of intriguing mysteries. Studying the
atmosphere of Venus may teach scientists about global warming. And
the surface of Mercury may hold secrets about the early history of the
solar system. NASA is considering missions to both planets
• Europa
The possible presence of an ocean under Europa’s ice is spurring
plans for further explorations of the Jovian moon
• Pluto and the Kuiper Belt
Neither Pluto nor any of the bodies in the Knieper belt have ever been
visited by a spacecraft
• Earth-like Planets in Other Solar Systems
A squadron of space observatories may help scientists identify a life-
bearing planet orbiting another star
• The First Galaxies
With the help of an enormous space telescope, astronomers hope to
observe the very first galaxies
Robots v. Humans :
Who Should Explore Space

• Robots Should Explore Space

Unmanned spacecraft are exploring the solar
system more cheaply and effectively than
astronauts are.
• Humans Should Explore Space
Astronaut explorers can perform science in
space that robots cannot
• Robots and Humans as Partners
Travel to Other Stars
• Small self-replicating probes could be launched
on interstellar journeys
• Creating a galactic internet may yield even
greater benefits
• The Interstellar Internet
Where Are the Aliens
Our celestial neighborhood is probably not home to a
multitude of technologically advanced civilizations that spend
their time boldly venturing to other star systems on board big,
imposing spacecraft. If that were the case, they would have
shown up here already, as they evidently have not. (I am, of
course, discounting reports of UFO [Unidentified Flying Object]
sightings and alien abductions, the evidence for which is
unpersuasive.) By similar reasoning we can reach the tentative
conclusion that wormholes, stargates and the other faster-than-
light transit systems favored by science fiction writers are not
widely in use, at least out here in the galactic suburbs.
 Review
YEAR EVENT

1957 Launch of the first Sputnik: The era of space conquest opens.

1959 The Soviet probe Luna 3 takes the first pictures of the hidden side of the
Moon.
1961 Gagarin takes the first piloted space flight.

1962 The first planetary mission succeeds: The United States probe Mariner 2
flies past Venus.
1963 The first quasar is discovered by Schmidt at Mount Palomar.

1965 Discovery of radio radiation in deep space at 3 K by Penzias and Wilson.

1967 Bell Burnell discovers pulsars at Cambridge (Great Britain).

V. Komarov (USSR) is the first human victim of a space flight.
1969 The mission Apollo 11 (Armstrong and Aldrin) puts the first human on the
Moon.
1971-72 The U.S. probe Mariner 9 orbits Mars and gathers the first images.
 Review
YEAR EVENT

1973 First flight past Jupiter by Pioneer 10.

A telescope 4 m in diameter is put into service at Kitt Peak (Arizona).
1974 The probe Mariner 10 registers the first surface details of Mercury and of the
atmosphere of Venus.
1975 Soviet space probes Verena 9 and 10 take the first photographs of the Sun from
Venus.
U.S.-Soviet space docking of Apollo-Soyuz.
1976 U.S. probes Viking 1 and 2 land on Mars (first measurements of the atmosphere
and surface).

1977 Kowal discovers the asteroid Chiron within the solar system.
Discovery of Uranus's rings.
1978 Christy discovers Charon, Pluto's satellite.
1979 Launch of two U.S. probes, Voyager 1 and 2, which fly past Jupiter.
Pioneer 11 achieves the first flyby of Saturn.
1980 Long baseline interferometer is put into service in New Mexico.
 Review
YEAR EVENT

1980-81 First detailed study of Saturn and its rings by U.S. probes Voyager 1 and 2.

1981 First flight of the U.S. space shuttle.

Second flyby of Saturn by Voyager 2.
1983 First infrared scanning of space, by the Infrared Astronomy Satellite (IRAS), starts.

1984 First in-space repair of an artificial satellite.

1985-86 Observation of Halley's Comet by different Soviet, European, and Japanese probes.

1986 Flyby of Uranus by Voyager 2.

U.S. space shuttle Challenger explodes in flight.
1987 Supernova 1987A appears in the Large Magellanic Cloud.

1988 Record human stay in space: V. Titov and M. Manarov return to Earth after a
one-year-long space flight.

1989 Voyager 2 flies by Neptune.

Discovery of dense 'walls' and empty spaces in the spatial distribution of galaxies,
by Geller and Uchra.
Two U.S. probes are launched: Magellan towards Venus, and Galileo towards Jupiter.
 Review
YEAR EVENT

1990 Launch of the Hubble Space Telescope; defectiveness of mirror is discovered.

First radar cartography of Venus made by Magellan.

1992 Two signals almost as old as the universe itself are registered by the satellite
COBE.
Service of the telescope Keck, 10 m in diameter, begins.
1993 In-space repair of the Hubble Space Telescope.
1994 Fragmented comet Shoemaker-Levy collides with Jupiter.
1995 European Solar and Heliophysical Observatory (SOHO) launched to study the
Sun.
1996 Mars Pathfinder and Sojourner rover explore the surface of Mars.
1998 Voyager 1 becomes most distant human-made object from Earth.
Construction of the International Space Stattion begins.
1999 Mars Global Surveyor begins systematic mapping of Mars.