Mrs. V.

Sunitha

Alignment of Railway
Lines

Alignment of railway line means the

direction and position given to the

centre line of the railway track on the
ground in horizontal and vertical plane.

Basic requirements of an Ideal

Alignment
1. Purpose of new railway line
1. Transportation Services
2. Political and Strategic
3. Linking of Centres
4. To open up new track
2. Integrated development
3. Economic Consideration
1. Shortest route
2. Construction and maintenance cost minimum
3. Operational expenses minimum
4. Maximum Safety and Comfort
5. Aesthetic Considerations

Factors in Selection of Good

Alignment
1. Choice of Gauge
2. Obligatory or controlling points
1.
Important towns and cities
2. Major bridges or river crossing
3. Hill passes and saddles
4. Site for tunnels
3. Topography of the country
1. Plain alignment
2. Valley alignment
3. Cross country alignment
4. Mountain alignment
1.
2.
3.

Zia zag line method

Switch back method
Spriral or complete loop method

4. Geometric Standards
5. Geological formation
6. Effect of Flood and Climate
7. Position of Road and Road crossing
8. Proximity of labour and material
9. Location of railway stations and yards
10. Religious and historical monuments
11. Cost considerations
12. Traffic considerations
13. Economic considerations
14. Political Considerations

Types of surveys
1. Traffic survey
2. Reconnaissance survey
3. Preliminary survey
4. Final location survey

Traffic Survey
The most promising route for the railway in

the area
The possible traffic the railway line will carry
Standard of railway line to be followed

Data to be collected
Human resources
Agriculture and mineral resources
Pattern of trade and commerce
Industries located and projected
Prospects of tourist traffic
Existing transport facilities
Important Government and private offices
situated
8. Planning for economic development of the
area
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

The traffic survey report should

normally contain the following
information:
1. History of the proposal and terms of reference.
General description.
Potentials and prospects
Industrial and economic development and traffic projections.
Population projection and volume of passenger traffic.
Existing rates and rates to be charged.
Location of route or routes examined, alternate routes and
possible extensions.
8. Station sites and their importance.
9. Train services, section capacity and various alternatives to
increase capacity.
10. Coaching earnings.
11. Goods earnings.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Contd..
12. Working expenses and net receipts.
13. Engineering features.
14. Tele-communication facilities
15. Financial appraisal.
16. Conclusions and recommendations.

Field data in Reconnaissance

survey
1. General topography of the country
2. Approximate heights of different points on
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

alignment.
Position of rivers, streams and some hydrological
details of the same.
Position of roads and high-ways.
Nature of soil at different places.
Rough location of various station sites, etc.
Controlling points on the alignment, where the
railway line must pass.
Facilities for construction.

Preliminary survey
Field survey:
1. An open traverse along the centre line of the

proposed alignment with the help of a

theodelite, tacheometer or a compass.
2. Longitudinal and cross levels on the proposed
route for a width of 200 meters on either side
in order to make an accurate contour map.
3. Plane tabling of the entire area to get various
geographical details.
4. Special survey of station sites, level crossings,
bridges by plane tabling, etc.

Data to be collected in Preliminary

Survey
Geological information
Construction materials
Facilities for construction
Land
Bridges
Road crossings
High flood level and low water level of all
the rivers and streams coming in the
alignment.
8. Station sites
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Final location survey

1. Centre line is fully marked out by pegs at 20

meters. At each 100 meters, a large peg

should be used.
2. Masonry pillars should be built at tangent
points of curves and along the centre line at
interval of 500 meters.
3. Longitudinal and cross levels are taken so as to
ascertain the final gradient of the alignments.
All gradients are compensated for curves.
4. The sites for a station yards are fully
demarcated.

Objectives to be met in Final

location survey of a railway line:
Correct obligatory points
Easy grades and flat curves.
Minimum cost of construction.
Minimum adverse effect on environment.
Ease of construction.
Potential for high speeds.
Avoid constraints for future expansion
Minimum maintenance cost.

Railway Track

Requirements of Good Track

1. Gauge should be correct and uniform
2. Rails should have perfect cross levels
3.
4.

5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

superelevation on curves
Alignment should be straight and free from kinks
Gradient should be uniform and as gentle as possible.
The change of gradient should be followed by a
proper vertical curve to give a smooth ride.
Track should be resilient and elastic in order to absorb
shocks and vibrations of running track.
Track should have good drainage
Track should have good lateral strength
Provision for easy replacements and renewals of
various track components.
Initial and maintenance cost should be minimum

Coning of Wheels

Coning of Wheels
Tread of the wheels of a railway vehicle are not

made flat, but sloped like a cone in order to

enable these vehicles to move smoothly on
curves as well as on straight track.

Curves circumference of the tread of outer wheel

becomes greater than that of inner wheel. This

helps the outer wheel to travel longer than the
inner wheel.
Due to rigidity of the frame, the rear axle has a
tendency to move towards the inner rail and this
does not permit the leading axle to take full
advantage of the coning. Rigidity however helps to
bring the vehicle back in central position.

Due to coning of wheels, the side movement in

straight track results in the tread circumference

of on a wheel increasing than the other.
As both the wheels have to traverse the same
distance, this leads one wheel to slide.
Due to resistance of sliding, further side
movement is stopped.
If no coining, flange will come in contact with
the side of the rail causing jerk and
uncomfortable riding.

Coning (adv & dis adv)

Disadvantages
Wear and tear due to slipping action

Advantages
Helps vehicle to negotiate curve smoothly
Gives smooth riding
Reduce wear and tear of wheel flanges

Tilting of rails
Rails are tilted inward at an angle of 1 in 20 to

reduce wear and tear on the rails as well on

the tread of the wheels.

Rails
Rails are placed end to end to provide

continuous and level surface for the trains to

move.
Rails are similar to steel girders.

Function of Rails
The rails provide continuous and level surface for

movement of trains.
The rails provide a pathway which is smooth and has very
less friction. The Friction between steel wheel and steel
rail is about 1/5th of the friction between the pneumatic
tyre and metalled road.
The rails serve as a lateral guide for the running of wheels.
The rails bear the stresses developed due to vertical loads
transmitted to it through axles and wheels of rolling stock
as well as due to braking forces and thermal stresses.
The rails carry out the function of transmitting the load to
a large area of formation through sleepers and ballast.

Types of rails

Requirements for an ideal rail

section
The rail should have most economical section

consistent with strength, stiffness and durability.

They should be of proper composition of steel and
should be manufactured by open hearth or duplex
process.
The vertical stiffness should be high enough to
transmit the load to several sleepers underneath. The
height of rail should, therefore, be adequate.
Rails should be capable of withstanding lateral forces.
Large width of head and foot endows the rails with high
lateral stiffness.
Contd

The head must be sufficiently deep to allow for an adequate

margin of vertical wear. The wearing surface should be hard.

Web should be sufficiently thick to bear the load coming on it
and should provide adequate flexural rigidity in horizontal
plane.
Foot should be wide enough so that rails are stable against
overturning.
Bottom of the head and top of the rails foot should be so
shaped as to enable the fish plates to transmit efficiently the
vertical load from the head to the foot at rail joints.
Relative distribution of material in head, web and foot of rail
must be balanced.
Contd

The centre of gravity of the rail section must lie

approximately at mid-height so that maximum

tensile and compressive stress are equal.
The fillet radii must be large to reduce the
concentration of stresses.
The tensile strength of the rail piece should not be
less than 72kg/Sq.mm.
The rail specimen should withstand the blow of
falling weight in test (as specified by Indian
Railway Standards without fracture).

Comparison of Rail Types

Point of Comparison

Flat-footed rails

Bull-headed rails and

Double-headed rails

1. Strength and stiffness

These have more strength and

stiffness for the same weight,
both laterally and vertically.

There have less strength and

stiffness.

2. Laying and Relaying

Fitting of these rails is simpler

and so can be easily laid and
relaid. No chairs are required.

The fitting of these rails is

difficult and time-consuming
as they are supported on
chairs.

3. Arrangements at points,
crossings and at sharp curves

The arrangement are simpler

The arrangements are

complicated.

4. Alignment and stability of

track

In this impact of Rolling

wheels affects the fittings and
the loosening of fittings
disturbs the alignment and
gives less stability.

These rails when fitted on

chairs, provide a more solid,
smooth track and better
alignment. Due to broad base
of chairs and wooden keys,
the pressure is distributed
over the larger area and
hence rails can be used on
soft wooden sleepers.

5. Initial Cost

These rails require less and

cheaper fastenings, so the
cost is less.

These require more and costly

fastenings and hence cost is
more.

Point of Comparison

Flat-footed rails

Bull-headed rails and

Double-headed rails

6. Rigidity

These rails can be used,

without bearing plates, on
sleepers as these rails are
strong as far as vertical loads
are concerned. Hence they
are more rigid.

These rails without chairs

cannot be used on inferior
type of sleepers being less
strong as far as vertical loads
are concerned. It is less rigid.

7. Inspection

Daily inspection is nor

necessary.

Daily inspection of wooden

keys is necessary.

8. Replacement of rails

In F.F. rails, the dog spikes

have to be taken out in
addition to fish bolts and fish
plates to change the rail, so
replacement is difficult.

These rails can be changed

easily by driving out the keys
and taking out fish bolts and
fish plates, without disturbing
sleepers.

9. Maintenance cost

The maintenance cost is less

high

10. Suitability

They are more suitable due

to better stability, economy,
strength and stiffness.

These are more suitable

when lateral loads are more
important rather than
vertical loads.

Functions of sleepers
Holding rails to correct gauge and alignment.
Giving a firm and even support to rails.
Transferring the load evenly from the rails to wider

area of the ballast.

Acting as an elastic medium between the rails and
the ballast to absorb the blows and vibrations of
moving loads.
Providing longitudinal and lateral stability to
premanent way.
Providing means to rectify the track geometry
during its service life.

Requirement of an ideal sleeper

The initial cost as well as maintenance cost should be

minimum.
The weight of the sleeper should be moderate so that it is
possible to handle the same.
The design of sleeper and fastenings should be such that it is
possible to fix and remove the rails easily.
The sleeper should have sufficient bearing area.
The sleeper should be such that it is possible to maintain and
adjust gauge properly.
The material of sleeper and its design should be such that it is
possible to have track circuiting.
The sleeper should be capable of resisting vibrations and
shocks due to passage of fast moving trains.
The sleeper should have anti-sabotage and anti-theft qualities.

Comparison of different types of

sleepers
Characterist
ics

Wooden
sleepers

Steel
sleepers

C.I. Sleepers

Concrete
sleepers

1. Service life

12 to 15 yrs.

40 to 50 yrs.

40 to 50 yrs.

50 to 60 yrs.

2. Weight of
sleeper for
B.G.

83kg

79kg

87kg

267kg

3. Handling

Manual
handling; no
damage to
sleeper while
handling

Manual
handling: No
damage to
sleeper while
handling

Manual
handling:
Liable to
break by
rough
handling

No manual
handling: gets
damaged by
rough
handling

4. Type of
maintenance

Manual or
mechanised
maintenance

Manual or
mechanised
maintenance

Manual
maintenance

Mechanised
maintenance
only

5. Cost of
maintenance

High

Medium

Medium

Low

6. Gauge
adjustment

Difficult

Easy

Easy

No gauge
adjustment
possible

7. Track
circuiting

Best

Difficult:;
Insulating
pads are
necessary

Difficult;
Insulating
pads are
necessary

Easy

8. Damage by
white ants
and corrosion

Can be
damaged by
white ants

No damage
by white ants
but corrosion
is possible

Can be
damaged by
corrosion

No damage
by white ants
or corrosion.

9. Suitability
for fastening

Suitable for
CF & EF

CF & EF

Suitable for
only CF

Suitable for
only EF

10. Suitability
to track

suitable for all suitable for all Not suitable

suitable for
routes
routes
for high speed high speed
routes
routes.

11. Track
elasticity

Good

Good

Good

Best

12. Creep

Creep is
excessive

Less Creep

Less Creep

Creep is
minimum

13. Scrap
value

Low scrap
value

Higher scrap
value than
wooden
sleeper

High scrap
value

No scrap
value.

Wooden Sleepers
Advantages
Cheap and easy to manufacture
Absorbs shocks and has got good capacity to dampen

the vibrations thereby retains packing well.

Easy handling without damage
Suitable for track circuited sections.
Suitable for areas having yielding formations.
Alignment can be easily corrected.
More suitable for modern methods of maintenance.
Can be used with or without stone ballast.
Can be used on bridges and ash pits also.
Can be used for gaunteletted track.

Wooden sleepers disadvantages

Lesser life due to wear, decay and attack by

vermin.
Liable to mechanical wear with beater
packing.
Difficult to maintain gauge.
Susceptible to fire hazards.
Scrap value is negligible.

Sleeper Density
Number of sleepers per rail length and it is

specified as (n + x), where n is the length of

the rail in meters and x is a number, varying
according to the following factors:
Axle load and speed
Type and section of the rails
Type of ballast and ballast cushion
Type of sleeper

Functions of Ballast
To provide a level and hard bed for the sleepers to rest

on.
To hold the sleepers in position during the passage of
trains.
To transfer and distribute the load from sleepers to a
large area of formation.
To provide elasticity and resilience to track for getting
proper riding comfort.
To provide necessary resistance to track for
longitudinal and lateral stability.
To provide effective drainage to track.
To provide effective means of maintaining level and
alignment of the track.

Requirements of good ballast

It should be tough and wear resistant.
It should be hard without getting crushed under the

moving loads.
It should be generally cubical having sharp edges.
It should be non-porous and non-absorbent of water
It should resist attrition.
It should be durable and should not get pulverized
under the weather conditions.
It should provide good drainage of water
It should be cheap and economical in proce.

Comparison of different type of

ballast
Type of Ballast

Advantages

Disadvantages

Suitability

1. Sand ballast

(i) Good
drainage
properties
(ii) Cheap
(iii) Gives silent
track
(iv) Good packing
material for
C.I. Pot
sleepers

(i) Causes
excessive
wear
(ii) Blows off
easily
(iii) Retentivity of
packing poor
(iv) Maintenance
of track not
to high
standards.

(i) Suitable for

C.I. pot
sleeper track.
(ii) Not suitable
for high
speed track

2. Moorum
Ballast

(i) Cheap, if
locally
available
(ii) Prevents
water from
percolating
(iii) Provides
good
aesthetic

(i) Very soft and

turns into
dust
(ii) Maintenance
of track
difficult
(iii) Quality of
track
average.

(i) Used as subballast.

(ii) Initial ballast
for new
construction .

3. Coal ash or
cinder

(i) Easy
availability
on railways.
(ii) Very cheap
(iii)Good
drainage.

(i) Harmful for

steel
sleepers.
(ii) Corrodes
rail bottom
& steel
sleepers
(iii)Soft &
easily
pulverises
(iv)Maintenanc
e difficult

4. Broken stone
ballast

(i) Hard and

(i) Initial cost is
durable when
high
procured from (ii) Difficulties in
hard stones
procurement
(ii) Good
(iii) Angular
drainage
shape may
properties
injure
(iii) Gives stability
wooden
and resilience
sleepers.
to track.
(iv) Good
retentivity of
packing

(i) Normally
used in
yards &
sidings
(ii) Suitable for
repairs of
formation in
floods &
emergencies
.
(iii)Not fit for
high speed
track.
(i) Sui9table for
packing with
track
machines
(ii) Suitable for
high speed
track

Subgrade and Formation

Subgrade is normally defined as the naturally

occuring soil, which can be further prepared to

receive the ballast. Sometime this term is
loosely used for formation also.
Formation: The prepared flat surface, whish is
ready to receive the ballast, sleepers and rails
is called the formation. The formation can be
in the shape of an embankment or a cutting.

Function of Formation
To provide a smooth and uniform bed on

which track can be laid.

To bear the load transmitted to it from the
moving load through the section of ballast
To facilitate drainage.
To provide stability to the track.

Track Fittings and

Fastenings
Purpose & Type

Details of Fittings and

Fastenings

1. Rail to Rail joining

Fish plates, Combination fish

plates, bolts and nuts

2. Rail to Wooden sleepers fitting

Dog spikes, Fang bolts, screw

spikes, Bearing plates

3. Rail to steel trough sleepers

Loose jaws, keys and liners

4. Rail to cast iron sleepers

Tie bars and cotters

5. Elastic fastenings to the used

with concrete, steel and wooden
sleepers

Elastic or Pandrol clip, IRN 202

clip, H.M. rfastening, M.C.I. Insert,
Rubber pads and Nylon liners

Fish plate

Fish Plates Requirements

They must support the underside of the rail and top of the

foot.
They should allow a free movement of rails for expansion
and contraction; for this purpose, they should not touch the
web.
They must be of such a section as to bear the stresses due
to lateral and vertical bending moments without getting
distorted and must absorb the shock caused by the jumping
of the wheel over the expansion gap.
They should hold the ends of the rail both laterally in line
and vertically in level.
They should be provided against wear of fish plates due to
impact, expansion and contraction.

Failure of fish-plates
Abrasion on top of fish-plate, especially along

central half length.

Reversal of stresses due large length of fishplates results into cracking along the section.
The crack starts from top.
Cracking along the section may extend upto
top or bottom of fish plate.

Spikes
Characteristics of good spike:
First of all, the spike should be strong enough
to hold the rail in position and it should have
enough resistance against movement to retain
its original position so that it does not lead to
creep under any circumstances.
The spike should be as deep as possible.
The spike should be easy in fixing and
removal from the sleepers.
It should properly maintain the Gauge.

Spikes
Screw Spikes

Round Spike

Dog Spikes

Fang Bolt

Fittings for wooden

Sleepers
Dog-spike
Dog spikes are used for fixing rail to the

wooden sleepers. The number of dog spike

normally used is as follows:
On straight track

- 2 (One on either side and

duly
staggered)
On curved track
Joint sleepers

- 3 (2 outside and 1 inside)

- 4 (2 outside and 2 inside)

Round Spikes:
Round spikes are used for fixing the rails with sleepers
using anti-creep bearing plates.
These are also used for fixing assemblies of switches on
wooden sleepers.
Fang Bolts
These are employed for fastening slide chairs to sleepers,
under the switches. These are used in locations where
gauge is to be preserved.
Screw Spikes:
These are used for fixing the anti creep bearing plates.
They are also used on bridges and platform lines.

Bearing Plates
They are used for fixing the wooden sleeper to the
rails.
Types of bearing plates
Mild steel canted Bearing Plates

These are used on all joints and on curves to give better

bearing area to the rails.
These bearing plates have got a cant of 1 in 20 and a groove
in the centre to prevent rocking.
Bearing plates with only round holes are permitted to be used.
The normal size of bearing plate is 260mm x 220mm x 18mm
for 52kg and 90R rails.

Flat M.S. Bearing Plates

These plates are used for points and Crossings in the lead portion
of the turnout.
No cant is provided in these bearing plates. The size of the
bearing plate is 260mm x 220mm x 18mm for 52kg and 90R rails.

Cast iron Anti Creep Bearing Plates

These plates are provided with wooden sleepers at locations

where creep is likely to be developed.
These bearing plates have got 1 in 20 cant and can be fixed with
normal round spikes.
The A.C.B. plate is 285mm x 205mm for B.G.

Special C.I. Bearing Plate for B.H. Rail

Special cast iron bearing plates are used for Bull headed rails.
The rail is held in position with the help of a spring key.

Fittings of Steel Trough

Sleepers
Loose Jaws

Used for holding the rail to steel trough sleeper with the

helps of keys.
These jaws can be easily replaced. These are
manufactured out of spring steel.
Two way keys
These keys are used universally with trough sleepers, potsleepers and CST-9 sleepers.
A two way taper is provided on both sides of the keys and
as such the keys can be driven in either direction.
These keys are manufactured from a special rolled section.
The length of the keys is about 190mm for B.G. with a
taper of 1 in 32.
A gauge variation of +- 3mm can be adjusted by altering
the length of drive of these keys.

 Rubber Coated & Epoxy coated fish plates

There were tried some time back for use on insulated

joints on trial basis on the Indian Railways.

They get damaged early in service and their life is
limited.
Trials were carried out for use on insulated joints.
Mota Singh Liner
The holes in trough sleepers get elongated in actual
service due to wear and tear caused on account of
moving loads.
Mota Singh Liner is an effective liner used with loose
jaws for overcoming the problem of elongated holes.

Fitting of C.I. Sleepers

Cotters
These are used for fixing the tie bars with the

C.I. Sleepers.
Following four different types of cotters,
classified according to their methods of
splitting, are being used at present on Indian
Railways:
Centre split cotter
Side split cotter
Solid end split cotter
Bent plate cotter

 M.S. Tie Bars

Are used for holding the two plates of CST-9 sleepers

together.
The normal length of tie bar is 2720mm for B.G. and
1870mm for M.G.
The section of the B.G. tie bar is 50mm x 13mm and that
of M.G. is 45mm x 10mm.

Elastic Fastenings
Necessity for elastic Fastenings:
To fix the rail with the sleeper.
To meet the present challenge of heavy
dynamic forces and high frequency vibration
of the order of 800 to 1000 cycles per second
even at a moderate speed of 100 kmph.
It safeguard the track parameters and
dampen the vibrations.

Requirements of an Elastic
Fastening
It should hold gauge well
It should have adequate toe load which should not

reduce under service.

It should provide sufficient elasticity to absorb the
vibrations and shocks caused by moving loads.
It should keep the track well maintained.
It should provide adequate resistance to
longitudinal forces caused due to acceleration of
moving loads and other miscellaneous factors.
These longitudinal forces tend to develop creep in
the track.

It should be of Fit and Forget type to require least

maintenance.
It should be of the type that it can be used and reused without losing its properties.
It should have a few parts as possible, which are
easy to be manufactured, laid and maintained.
It should be of the type that it cannot be taken out
and as such is free from sabotage or theft.
It should be of universal type so that it can be used
on wooden, steel or concrete sleepers.
It should be cheap and have a long life.

Type of Elastic Fastenings

1. Pandrol Clip or Elastic Rail Clip
It is a Fit and forget type of fastening and very little
attention is required to main the same.
It exerts a toe load of 710 kg for a normal deflection of
11.4mm.
The toe load is quiet adequate to ensure that no relative
movement between rail and sleeper is possible.
These clips can be fixed on wooden, steel, cast iron and
concrete sleepers with the help of base plate and with
some other ancillary fittings.
There are maximum used in Indian Railways along with
concrete sleepers.

Drawbacks of Pandrol Clip or Elastic Rail Clip

No adjustment of gauge is possible
This has a point contact and causes indentation
on the foot of the rail.
It does-not provide safeguard for theft at it can
be taken out by ordinary hammer.

2. IRN 202 Clips

This is designed to suit RCC sleeper.
It is designed for a toe load of 1000kg and a deflection of 18.5mm.
It consist of outer leg connected by means of two coils.
It is held in position by a bolt and clamp arrangement.
It holds the track gauge easily and effectively.
It has the advantage that the rail can be changed without removing

the fastening simply by loosening the bolt and pussing the rail out.
Drawbacks:
Corrosion
It is not a fit and forget type because it requires frequent attention
like oiling and tightening of the nuts.
It is costlier and heavier

3. Lock Spikes
The lock or round spike are used for wooden
sleepers.
4. Spring steel clip
These are used in pre-stressed concrete
sleepers.
In this assembly, the rail rest on a grooved
rubber pad and is held vertically by a pair of
spring clips at each rail seat. The clip is pressed
by a nut tightened on a 22mm bolt which is
inserted from the underside of the sleeper.
5. Elastic rail clip MK-III
6. HM fastening

M.C.I. Inserts
Malleable Cast iron inserts are fixed directly

into the concrete sleepers during

manufacture.
Types
Stem Type M.C.I. Insert for pretension concrete sleepers
Gate Type M.C.I. Insert Post tension concrete sleepers

Rubber Pad
It is provided between rails and sleepers to

perform
Absorbs the shocks and vibrations
Resist lateral movement of rails
Prevent abrasion of the bottom surface of the

rails.
Provides electrical insulation between the rails
in an electrified area.

Number of Fastenings
Type of
sleeper

Ordinary
Fastenings
per sleeper

Nos.

Elastic Fastening
per sleeper

1. Wooden

Dog spikes or
Screw spikes
Keys for C.I.
Bearing
plates

8
8

C.I. Bearing Plates

Plate Screws
Pandrol clips
Rubber pads

2
8
4
2

2. Concrete

No ordinary
Fastenings

Pandrol clips
Nylon liners
Rubber pads
M.C.I. inserts

4
4
2
4

3. Steel
trough

Keys
Loose jaws

4
4

Modified loose jaws

Pandrol clips
Rubber pads

4
4
2

4. CST/9

Plates
Tie Bar
Cotters

2
1
4

Pandrol clips
Rubber pads

4
2

Nos.

Track Junctions
Combinations of points and crossings
Transfer or cross rail vehicles from one track

to another

Turnout of Similar Flexure

It continuous to run in the same direction as the

main line curve even after branching off from it.

The degree of the turnout curve is higher than
that of the main line curve.

Turnout of Contrary
Flexure

It takes off towards the direction opposite to

that of the main line curve.

Symmetrical split

In this a straight track splits up in two different direction with

equal radii
It is the contrary flexure in which the radii of the two curves are
the same.
It consist of a pair of points, one acute angle crossing, four
curved lead rails and two check rails.
Layout is symmetrical about the centre line
It diverts vehicles towards left and right.

Three-throw switch

In this, two turnouts take off from the same line of the main line track.
It can be contrary or similar flexure
It is used in congested goods yards and at entry points to locomotive

yards where there is less space.

It has two switches each having two tongue rails placed side by side.
Key block is combined for both tongue rails.
Switches can be operated in such a way that movement is possible in
three different directions.
It is hazardous as the use of double switches may lead to derailment.

Double turnout or
tandem

In this, turnout are staggered and takeoff from

the main line at two different places.

This eliminates the defect of the three throw
switch, as the heals of the two switches are
kept at a certain distance from each other.
These are used in congested areas,
particularly when traffic is heavy.

Cross over between Two

Parallel Tracks with an
Intermediate Straight Length

Diamond Crossing

It is provided when two tracks of either the

same gauge or of different gauges cross

each other.
It consists of two acute crossings (A & C)
and two obtuse crossing (B & D)

Single Slip and Double

Slip

Slips are provided to allow vehicles to change

track which is not possible in diamond

crossing
In single slip there are two sets of joints, the
vehicle from only one direction change track.
Example the train on track A can change to
track D, whereas the train on track C remains
of the same track, continuing on to track D.
In a case of double slips, there are four sets of
points and trains from both directions can
change tracks.
The trains on both tracks A and C can move
on to either track B or D.

Scissors Crossing

It is meant for transferring a Vehicle from one

track to another track.

It is provided where lack of space does not
permit the provision of two separate crossovers.
It consists of four pairs of switches, six acute
crossings, two obtuse crossings, check rails etc..

Gauntletted Track

This is a temporary diversion provided on a

double line track to allow one of the tracks to

shift and pass through the other track.
Both the tracks run together on the same
sleeper.
It proves to be useful connection when one
side of a bridge on a double line section is
required to be blocked for major repairs.
The specialty of this is that there are two
crossings at the ends and no switches.
This tracks are also used on sections where
trains have to operate on mixed gauges for a
short stretch.

Gathering Line or ladder

track

It is a track where number of parallel tracks

gather or merge.

Triangle

Provided in terminal yards for changing

direction of an engine.
A triangle is provided instead of turntables, if
enough land is available.
It consists of one symmetrical split at R and
two turnouts at P and Q along with lead rails,
check rails etc.
To change the direction of an engine standing
at P, it is first taken to R, then to Q and then
back to P.

Double Junctions

It is required when two or more main line tracks

are running and other tracks are branching off

from these main line tracks in the same
direction.
It consists of ordinary turnout with one or more
diamond crossing depending upon the number
of parallel tracks.
This may occur either on straight or curved main
lines and the branch lines may also be either
single or double lines.
It is common in congested yards.

Points or switch
A pair of tongue and stock rails with the

necessary connections and fittings forms a switch.

Crossing
A crossing is a device introduced at the

junction where two rails cross each other to

permit the wheel flange of a railway vehicle to
pass from one track to another.

Direction of a turnout

A turnout is designated as a right-hand or a left-hand turnout

depending on whether it diverts the traffic to the right or to

the left.
The direction of a point is known as the facing direction of a
vehicle approaching the turnout or a point has to first face the
thin end of the switch.
The direction is trailing direction if the vehicle has to
negotiate a switch in the trailing direction i.e., the vehicle
first negotiates the crossing and then finally traverses on the
switch from its thick end to its thin end.
Therefore, when standing at the toe of a switch, if one looks
in the direction of the crossing, it is called the facing direction
and the opposite direction is called the trailing direction.

Switches
It contains the following:
A pair of stock rails, AB and CD, made of medium-manganese steel.
A pair of tongue rails, PQ and RS, also known as switch rails, made of
medium-manganese steel to withstand wear. The tongue rails are
machined to a very thin section to obtain a snug fit with the stock rail.
The tapered end of the tongue rail is called the toe and the thicker end
is called the heel.
A pair of heel blocks which hold the heel of the tongue rails is held at
the standard clearance or distance from the stock rails.
A number of slide chairs to support the tongue rail and enable its
movement towards or away from the stock rail.
Two or more stretcher bars connecting both the tongue rails close to
the toe, for the purpose of holding them at a fixed distance from each
other.
A gauge tie plate to fix gauges and ensure correct gauge at the points.

Types of switches
Stud switch
No separate tongue rail is provided and some
portion of the track is moved from one side to the
other side.
Not in use on Indian Railways.
Split switch.
It consist of a pair of stock rails and a pair of tongue
rails.
It is of two types loose heel type and fixed heal
type.

Loose heel type

In this type of split switch, the switch or tongue rail

finishes at the heal of the switch to enable movement of

the free end of the tongue rail.
The fish plates holding the tongue rail may be straight or
slightly bent.
The tongue rail is fastened to the stock rail with the help
of a fishing fit block and four bolts.
All the fish bolts in the lead rail are tightened while those
in the tongue rail are kept loose or snug to allow free
movement of the tongue.
As the discontinuity of the track at the heal is a weakness
in the structure, the use of these switches is not preferred.

Fixed heal type

In this type of split switch, the tongue rail

does not end at the heel of the switch but

extends further and is rigidly connected.
The movement at the toe of the switch is
made possible on account of the flexibility of
the tongue rail.

Toe of switches
It is of the following types
Undercut switch:
In this switch the foot of the stock rail is
planed to accommodate the tongue rail.

Overriding switch:
In this case, the stock rail occupies the full section and the
tongue rail is planed to a 6-mm thick edge, which overrides
the foot of the stock rail.
The switch rail is kept 6mm higher than the stock rail from the
heel to the point towards the toe where the planning starts.
This is done to eliminate the possibility of splitting caused by
any false flange moving in the trailing direction.
This design is considered to be an economical and superior
design due to the reasons given below:
Since the stock rail is uncut, it is much stronger.
Manufacturing work is confined only to the tongue rail, which is

very economical.
Although the tongue rail has a thin edge of only 6mm, it is
supported by the stock rail for the entire weakened portion of its
length. As such, the combined strength of the rails between the
sleepers is greater than that of the tongue rail alone in the
undercut switch.
These switches have been standardized on the Indian Railways.

Important Terms Pertaining to

Switch angle:
Switches
This is the angle between the gauge face of the stock rail
and that of the tongue rail at the theoretical toe of the
switch in its closed position.
It is a function of the heel divergence and the length of the
tongue rail.
Flangeway clearance:
It is the distance between the adjoining faces of the running
rail and the check rail/wing rail at the nose of the crossing.
It is meant for providing a free passage to wheel flanges.
The minimum and maximum value of flangeway clearance
Gauge
Flangeway clearance
for BG and MG tracks are:
Maximum value (mm)

Minimum value (mm)

BG

48

44

MG

44

41

Length of tongue rail

Gauge and
type

Length of tongue rail

1 in 8.5
straight
(mm)

1 in 12
straight
(mm)

1 in 12
curved
(mm)

1 in 16
curved
(mm)

1 in 20
curved
(mm)

BG (90 R)

4725

6400

7730

9750

11150

MG (75 R)

4116*

5485*

6700

7420

* These dimensions hold good for NG tracks also

Crossings
It is a device introduced at the point where two

gauge faces cross each other to permit the

flanges of a railway vehicle to pass from one
track to another.
To achieve this objective, a gap is provided from
the throw to the nose of the crossing, over which
the flanged wheel glides or jumps.
In order to ensure that this flanged wheel
negotiates the gap properly and does not strike
the nose, the other wheel is guided with the help
of check rails.

Components of crossing
1. Two rails, the point rail and splice rail, which are machined to
form a nose.
The point rail ends at the nose, where as the splice rail joins it a

little behind the nose.

Theoretically, the points rail should end in a point and be made as
thin as possible, but such a knife edge of the point rail would break
off under the movement of traffic.
The point rail, therefore, has its fine end slightly cut off to form a
blunt nose, with a thickness of 6mm.
The toe of the blunt nose is called the actual nose of crossing and
the theoretical point where gauge faces from both sides intersect is
called the theoretical nose of crossing.
The V rail is planed to a depth of 6mm at the nose and runs out in
89mm to stop a wheel running in the facing direction from hitting
the nose.

2. Two wing rails consisting of a right-hand and a

left-hand wing rail that converge to form a throat
and diverge again on either side of the nose.
Wing rails are flared at the ends to facilitate the
entry and exit of the flanged wheel in the gap.
3. A pair of check rails to guide the wheel flanges
and provide a path for them, thereby preventing
them from moving sideways, which would
otherwise may result in the wheel hitting the
nose of the crossing as it moves in the facing
direction.

Types of Crossings

a) An acute angle crossing or V crossing in which

the intersection of the two gauge faces from an

acute angle. For example, when a right rail
crosses s left rail, it makes an acute crossing.
b) An obtuse or diamond crossing in which the
two gauge faces meet at an obtuse angle.
When a right or left rail crosses a similar rail, it
makes an obtuse crossing.
c) A square crossing in which two tracks cross at
right angle. Such crossings are rarely used in
actual practice.

Built up crossing
In a built-up crossing, two wing rails and a V section

consisting of splice and point rails are assembled together

by means of bolts and distance blocks to form a crossing.
This type of crossing is commonly used on Indian Railways.
Such crossings have the advantage that their initial cost is
low and that repairs can be carried out simply by welding
or replacing each constituent separately.
A crossing becomes unserviceable when wear is more than
10mm.
A built up crossing, however, lacks rigidity.
The bolts required frequent checking and sometimes break
under fast and heavy traffic.

Cast steel crossing

This is a one-piece crossing with no bolts and,

therefore, requiring very little maintenance.

Comparatively, it is a more rigid crossing
since it consist of one complete mass.
The initial cost of such a crossing is, however,
quite high and its repair and maintenance
pose a number of problems.
Recently cast manganese steel crossings,
which have longer life, have also been
adopted.

Combined rail and cast

crossing
This is a combination of a built-up and cast
steel crossing and consists of a cast steel nose
finished to ordinary rail faces to form the two
legs of the crossing.
Though it allows the welding of worn out wing
rails, the nose is still liable to fracture
suddenly.

CMS crossing
Due to increase in traffic and the use of heavier axle

loads, the ordinary built-up crossings manufactured

from medium-manganese rails subjected to very
heavy wear and tear, specially in fast lines and
suburban sections with electric traction.
Past experience has shown that the life of such
crossings varies from 6 months to 2 years, depending
on their location and the service conditions.
CMS crossings possess higher strength, offer more
resistance to wear, and consequently have a longer
life.

Advantages of CMS
crossings
Less wear and tear
Longer life: The average life of a CMS crossing

is about four times more than that of an

ordinary built-up crossing.
CMS crossings are free from bolts as well as
other components that normally tend to get
loose as a result of the movement of traffic.

These days CMS crossings are preferred on Indian Railways.

Though their initial cost is high, their maintenance cost is

relatively less and they last longer.

However, special care must be taken in their laying and
maintenance.
Keeping this in view, CMS crossings have been standardized
on Indian Railways.
On account of the limited availability of CMS crossings in
the country, their use has, however, been restricted for the
time being to group A routes.
These should also be reserved for use on heavily worked
lines of all the groups in busy yards.

Spring or Movable
crossing
In a spring crossing, one wing rail is movable and is held
against the V of the crossing with a strong helical spring
while the other wing rail is fixed.
When a vehicle passes on the main track, the movable
wing rail is snug with the crossing and the vehicle does
not need to negotiate any gap at the crossing.
In case the vehicle has to pass over a turnout track, the
movable wing is forced out by the wheel flanges and the
vehicle has to negotiate a gap as in a normal turnout.
This type of crossing is useful when there is high-speed
traffic on the main track and slow-speed traffic on the
turnout track.

Raised check Rails for Obtuse

In order to provide a guided pathway in the
Crossings
throat portion of a 1 in 8.5 BG obtuse diamond
crossing, the check rails are raised by welding
as 25-mm-thick MS plate.
This arrangement is considered satisfactory
for BG as well as MG routes.

Position of sleepers at points and

crossings
Sleepers are normally perpendicular to the
track.
At points and crossings, a situation arises
where the sleepers have to cater to the main
line as well as to the turnout portion of the
track.
For this purpose, longer sleepers are used for
some length of the track as shown in Fig.

Number and Angle of

Crossing
A crossing is designated either by the angle
the gauge faces make with each other or,
more commonly, by the number of the
crossing, representing by N.
There are three methods of measuring the
number of crossing, and the value of N also
depends upont he method adopted.
All these methods are illustrated in Fig.

Centre line method

This method is used in Britain and the USA.
In this method, N is measured along the

centre line of the crossing.

Right angle method

This method is used on Indian Railways.
In this method, N is measured along the base

of a right-angled triangle.
This method is also called Coles method.

Isosceles triangle method

In this method, N is taken as one of the equal

sides of an isosceles triangle.

The right angle method used by Indian

Railways, in which N is the contingent of the

angle formed by two gauge faces, gives the
smallest angle for the same value of N.
To determine the number of a crossing (N) on
site, the point where the offset gauge face of
the turnout track is 1 m is marked.
The distance of this point (in meters) from the
theoretical nose of crossing gives N.

Turnouts
The simplest arrangement of points and

crossing can be found on a turnout taking off

from a straight track.
There are two standard methods prevalent for
designing a turnout.
These are the (a) Coles method and (b) IRS
method.
These methods are described in detail in the
following sections.

Curve lead (CL)

This is the distance from the tangent point (T)

to the theoretical nose of crossing (TNC)

measured along the length of the main track.

Switch lead (SL)

This is the distance from the tangent point (T)

to the heel of the switch measured along the

length of the main track.

Lead of crossing (L)

This is the distance measured along the length of the

main track as follows:

Lead of crossing (L) = Curve lead(CL) Switch lead (SL)

Gauge (G)
This is the gauge of the track.

Heel divergence (D)

This is the distance between the main line and

the turnout side at the heel.

Angle of crossing ()
This is the angle between the main line and

the tangent of the turnout line.

Radius of turnout (R)

This is the radius of the turnout.
It may be clarified that the radius of the

turnout is equal to the radius of the centre line

to the turnout (R1) plus half the gauge width.
R = R1 + 0.5G

As the radius of a curve is quite large, for

practical purposes, R may be taken to be

equal to R1.

Special fittings with

turnouts
Some of the special fittings required for use
with turnouts are enumerated below.

Distance blocks
Special types of distance blocks with fishing

fit surfaces are provided at the nose of the

crossing to prevent any vertical movement
between the wing rail and the nose of the
crossing.

Flat bearing plates

As turnouts do not have any cant, flat bearing

plates are provided under the sleepers.

Spherical washers
These are special type of washers and consist

of two pieces with a spherical point of contact

between them.
This permits the two surfaces to line at any
angle to each other.
These washers are used for connecting two
surfaces that are not parallel to one another.
Normally, tapered washers are necessary for
connecting such surfaces.
Spherical washers can adjust to the uneven
bearings of the head or nut of a bolt and so
are used on all bolts in the heel and the

Slide chairs
These are provided under tongue rails to

allow them to move laterally.

These are different for ordinary switches and
overriding switches.

Grade off chairs

These are special chairs provided behind the

heel of the switches to give a suitable ramp to

the tongue rail, which is raised by 6mm at the
heel.

Gauge tie plates

These are provided over the sleepers directly

under the toe of the switches, and under the

nose of the crossing to ensure proper gauge
at these locations.

Stretcher bars
These are provided to maintain the two

tongue rails at an exact distance.

Coles method
This is a method used for designing a turnout taking

off from a straight track.

The curvature beings from a point on the straight
main track ahead of the toe of the switch at the
theoretical toe of switch (TTS) and ends at the
theoretical nose of crossing (TNC).
The heel of the switch is located at the point where
the offset of the curve is equal to the heel divergence.
Theoretically, there would be no kinks in this layout,
had the tongue rail been curved as also the wind rail
up to the TNC.

Since tongue rails and wind rails are not curved

generally, there are the following three kinds in this

layout.
The first kind is formed at the actual toe of the switch.
The second kink is formed at the heel of the switch.
The third kink is formed at the first distance block of the crossing.

The notations used in Fig are the following.

Curve lead (CL) = AE = TE
Switch lead (SL) = TL
Lead of crossing (L) = LE
Gauge of track (G) = AT = EE
Angle of the crossing () = CEA = ECE
Heel of divergence (d) = LM
Number of the crossing (N) = cot
Radius of outer rail of turnout curve (R) = OE = OT
(O is the centre of the turnout curve)