Topic 3

Educational Research procedure

Choosing a Research
Problem

Research Problem
We do research with a purpose.
Some of the purposes are:
(1) Solving a critical problem that needs
immediate attention;
(2) Bringing advancement to present
educational practices; and
(3) Producing new knowledge or product
useful for education

Research Problem
You as a researcher might want to research
a specific area of your expertise or
interest in education.
For example:
How to make mathematics class more fun?
How to increase your students attention span?
However, you might want to take into
account time constraint and available
resources!!!
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Research Problem
(1) Once you have decided on an area, your
first job is to identify research problems
(2) Find out what have been investigated by
other researchers
(3) Read up on the kinds of research problems
which constantly crop up in the field
(4) Talk to your colleagues and bounce ideas
from them
(5) Draw from your own teaching experience,
consult available literature, journals,
internet and so on
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Research Problem
In Educational research, we start
with a

problem area.

What is the problem or issue?

Who says it is an issue?
What are the data that can
convince us if it is an issue?
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Example:
Cooperative learning is learning in
small group of 4-5 persons with
emphasis on interdependency among
members, and maintaining individual
responsibilities in achieving specific
learning objectives. It has been
proven through more than 100
research
that
it
enhances
achievement as well as affective
domain (Johnson & Johnson, 1994).

Example:
The noble values in the Malaysian school
curriculum cut across curriculum and are
required to be included in the daily lesson
plan. This research attempts to see if the
5 noble values: love, rationale, diligent,
independent and cooperativeness can be
inculcated through teaching mathematics
using the cooperative learning TGT
structure.

Example:
Cooperative learning to inculcate
values was conducted in 12 secondary
schools in Malaysia, using the
structures of Jigsaw 2 and STAD
(Nor Azizah et al, IRPA, 1988). This
experimental study, however will
focus on cooperative learning using
TGT (Team Games Tournaments)
which was not extensively research
locally in mathematics.

Example:
It is introducing learning
through
group
competitive
games which would make learning
interesting
and
encourages
students to attain positive
values in life.

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Determining the
Research Objectives

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Research Objectives
Objectives are:
specific aims of the research
detailed statements of expected
outcome of research
essential in guiding the kind of
data to be collected and the
instruments to be used.
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Research Objectives
(1) State clearly the objectives of
the study
(2) Do not set many objectives
(Maximum 3 objectives)
(3) Objectives should be simple,
specific and achievable.

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Examples:
The Objective of the study are:
(1) to determine if cooperative
learning using TGT improves
achievement in mathematics
(2) to determine if cooperative
learning using TGT can inculcate
love, kindheartedness, honesty,
rationale and cooperativeness
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Determining the
Research Questions

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Research Questions
(1) Research questions and research
objectives are closely related to each
other.
(2) Usually research objectives are
derived from research questions.
(3) Research objectives are less specific
compared to research questions
(4) They are written in question forms.
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Examples:
(1) How does cooperative learning using
TGT improves achievement in
mathematics?
(1) Does cooperative learning using TGT
inculcate love, kindheartedness,
honesty, rationale and
cooperativeness?
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Determining the
Research Hypothesis

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Research Hypothesis
(1) Research hypothesis is a formulation
of a (potential) solution to a problem
in a form of a statement.
(2) A statement of the predicted and
educational answers to research
questions.
(3) An indication of relationship between
variables or the effect of one
variable upon another
(4) Statistically tested (Not all)
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Examples:
(1) Students who learn mathematics
through cooperative learning using TGT
performed better than those who learn
by the traditional method
(2) Ho1:There is no difference in the
mean score between pre and
post test scores with regard to
value love
Ha1:There is a difference in the mean
score between pre and post test
scores with regard to value love
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Reviewing the
Literature

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Literature Review
(1) Literature Review is a process of
studying related literature and past
research.
(2) Looking at the published scholarly
papers related to ones topic of
study.
(3) Makes researcher knowledgeable of
the research area
(4) Guides researcher in the research
process
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Aims of Literature Review

(1) To map the field of study so that the
researcher will get the big picture in
terms of knowledge, theories and
principles
(2) To determine if the researchers selected
topic is workable in light of what has been
said about and around the topic
(3) To discover gaps in the body of knowledge
that the researcher intends to fill out

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Planning the
Research Design

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Research Design
(1) A research design is a plan to carry
out an intended research.
(2) According to Creswell (2002), there
are three different research design
which are frequently used in
educational research.
(3) They are quantitative or qualitative
in nature or in some instances, the
combination of both.
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Research Design
(1) Quantitative Research Design:

(a) Experimental (Intervention)

- to find out the effectiveness
of a new method of teaching
over the conventional method
(b) Quasi-experimental
- to find out the effectiveness
of a new programme with the
same grade students
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Research Design
(1) Quantitative Research Design:

(c) Correlation
- to find out whether the
assumption that the students
who are good in mathematics are
also good in science is true or false
(d) Survey
- to generalise results obtained from
a randomly selected respondents to
the population
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Research Design
(2) Qualitative Research Design:

(a) Grounded Theory

- to make a study on a a general
phenomenon which is grounded on a
Theory. It requires observation
as well as interview
(b) Ethnographic
- to identify a group of people to study,
visit the setting of the group, note how
they behave and interact with others,
how they think and develop a general
picture of the group
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Research Design
(2) Qualitative Research Design:

(c) Narrative
- used by individuals to tell their
personal, firsthand accounts to
researchers.
- investigators describe the lives of
individuals, collect and tell stories
about peoples lives and write
narratives of individual
experiences
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Research Design
(3) Combination of Quantitative and
Qualitative Research Design:

(a) Mixed Method

- procedure of collecting both
qualitative and quantitative data in
a single study
(b) Action Research
- addresses a specific, practical
issue and seeks to obtain solutions
to the problem
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Determining the
Sampling Procedure

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Sampling Procedure
(1) Selecting a sample is a very important
step especially when conducting
quantitative research.
(2) A good sample is one that is
representative of the population from
which it is selected
(3) The steps in sampling can be summarised
as follows:
(i) identify the population;
(ii) determine the required
sample size; and
(iii) select the sample
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Sampling Procedure
There are 4 basic sampling procedure:
(1) Simple random sampling
- a process of selecting a sample in
such a way that all individuals in
the selected population have an
equal chance to be selected into
the sample

33

Sampling Procedure
There are 4 basic sampling procedure:
(2) Stratified sampling
- a process of selecting a sample in
such a way that identified subgroups in the population is
represented in the sample

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Sampling Procedure
There are 4 basic sampling procedure:
(3) Cluster sampling

- a process of using a sample whenever the

sampling unit is not the unit that

represents the population but represents a
group or a cluster within the population.

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Sampling Procedure
There are 4 basic sampling procedure:
(4) Systematic sampling
- a process where individuals are
selected from a list taking every
Nth name.
- If N represents 5, then every 5th
name will be selected as the
sample for the study until the
required numbers are met.
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Constructing the
Research Instrument

37

Research Instrument
(1) Before you carry out the
research, you have to develop
the research instruments.
(2) It should be planned and
developed well to suit the
purpose and objectives of the
research
(3) A well developed instrument
would measure the variable of
the research accurately.
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Constructing the Validity

and Reliability of the
Instrument

39

Reliability & Validity

(1) Both reliability and validity of research
instruments are vital (penting)
(2) Validity (kesahan) is the most important
characteristic of a test/instrument.
(3) Validity is concerned with the
appropriateness of the interpretations
made from test scores.
(4) Reliability (kebolehpercayaan) is a synonym
to consistency and replicability over time,
instruments and groups of respondents
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Reliability & Validity

There are 4 types of validity:
(1) Content Validity
- is the degree to which a test
measures an intended content
area.
- Experts in the topic covered by
the test are asked to assess its
content validity.
- The judgment is made by comparing
what was taught and what is being
tested
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Reliability & Validity

There are 4 types of validity:
(2) Criterion- related Validity
(a) Concurrent validity- is the
degree to which scores on one
test correlate to scores on
another equivalent test.
(b) Predictive validity is the
degree to which a test can
predict how well individuals will
do in a future situation
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Reliability & Validity

There are 3 types of reliability:
(1) Reliability as Stability
- is a measure of consistency over
time and over similar samples.
- it means, reliable instrument will
achieve similar data from similar
respondents over time

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Reliability & Validity

There are 3 types of reliability:
(2) Reliability as Equivalence
- reliability could be achieved
through using equivalent or
alternative forms to a test or
data gathering instrument.

44

Reliability & Validity

There are 3 types of reliability:
(3) Reliability as Internal Consistency
- internal consistency could be
achieved by running the test
once only through the split-half
method

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Determining data collection

procedure

46

Data Collection
(1) Quantitative Data
- data are collected from the
respondents through a
questionnaire or from test results
- most researchers used to record the
scores by using the Likert Scale on a
5-point scale:
5 strongly agree
4 agree
3 moderately agree
2 - disagree
1 - strongly disagree
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Data Collection
(2) Qualitative Data
- instead of utilising numbers to
representing some ideas,
researchers might have to write
lengthy descriptive narrations,
which later on have to be
summarised and classified under
different selected variables.
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Analysing and Interpreting

the Data

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Data Analysis
(1) Quantitative Data
(a) Descriptive analysis
- frequencies & percentages
- mean & standard deviation
- linear correlation & simple
regression

50

Data Analysis
(1) Quantitative Data
(b) Hypothesis Testing of
Relationships
- Chi-square test
- Linear Correlation test
- Simple regression test

51

Data Analysis
(1) Quantitative Data
(c) Hypothesis Testing of
Differences
- Two-means test
- More than two-mean
- Pairs of means test

52

Data Analysis
(2) Qualitative Data
- analysis involves the process of
bringing order to the data
- to organise the data into
patterns, categories, ad basic
descriptive units

53

Data Analysis
(2) Qualitative Data
- The following steps are followed
in data analysis:
1. pre-analysis stage
2. data reduction stage
3. data display
4. data verification stage and
5. findings (include interpretation)
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Reporting the Results and

Findings

55

Research Results
1. The results of a research study
are products of the data analysis.
2. The results come in various forms.
3. They may consist of summary
statements synthesized from other
documents
4. Tables can be used effectively for
summarising results, especially if a
report involves a large amount of
statistical material.
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Research Findings
1. The findings of the study should be based
on the research questions that the
researcher put forth in the beginning.
2. The result of the data analysis should be
reported in an objective manner, often
including the key tables and graphs that
organise the findings.
3. Research findings relate to the outcome
of the research; Did they answer the
research questions? What was found?
4. A summary of the major findings should be
made..

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SELAMAT BELAJAR

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Soalan 1
Selain melakukan tinjauan literatur,
prosedur penyelidikan melibatkan
beberapa langkah yang lain. Nyatakan
empat daripada langkah tersebut dan
jelaskan.

59

Soalan 2
Huraikan tujuan tinjauan literatur
dan cara melakukannya.

60

Soalan
Kemukakan dua langkah yang boleh
diambil oleh penyelidik untuk
mengukuhkan kesahan dan
kebolehpercayaan
Penyelidikan Kualitatif..

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Jawapan

Membuat triangulasi daripada sumber

data yang berbeza.
Membuat prosedur semakan oleh rakan
untuk menyemakketepatan transkripsi
data.
Memberikan masa yang lebih semasa
kerja lapangan yang membolehkan
penyelidik memahami sesuatu fenomena
dengan mendalam dan berulang.
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