Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
bin Shamshuddin
HIGHWAY
MATERIALS
bin Shamshuddin
bin Shamshuddin
2.1
SOIL
Sub-grade is the part of embankment or natural soil
under the sub-base or lower sub-base of road and road
shoulder.
First part of the road constructed
The surface of sub-grade - formation level.
PROPERTIES:
Good sub-grade
Should be stable under the varieties of vehicle load and
climatic condition.
The strength of the sub-grade should remain along the
design period.
The ability to drain water.
PROPERTIES:
Not good (Unsuitable materials-USM)
Soils which consists of organic clays or silts.
The value of Liquid Limits (LL) > 80 % or Plasticity Index
(PI) > 55 %
The value of Loss on Ignition (LOI) > 2.5 %
Soils consist of roots, grass or other plants, toxic, peat or
mud.
TESTING
The tests which are usually conducted to the soils for sub
grade and road embankment are listed as follows:
Loss On Ignition (LOI) BS 1377: Part 3: 1990
Liquid Limit (LL) and Plastic Limit (PL) BS 1377: Part 2:
1990
Compaction BS 1377: Test 13: 1975 (Part 4: 1990)
California Bearing Ratio (CBR) BS 1377: Test 16: 1975
(Part 4: 1990)
Field density test sand replacement method BS 1377
SAND
1. Used for the sub-base layer.
2. Features:
Must drain readily.
Sustain smaller load pressure.
3. The functions:
PROPERTIES:
Have small proportion of plastic or non plastic fines
Free from vegetative and other organic matter
Free from expansive clay minerals and lumps of clay
The liquid limit shall be not more than 25%.
The plasticity index shall be not more than 6%.
The aggregate crushing value shall be not more than 35%.
CBR value of 30 or more when compacted to 95% of the
maximum dry density
The gradation shall conform to one of the envelopes shown
in Table 1
TESTING
Atterberg Limits
Aggregate Crushing Value
California Bearing Ratio
Gradation (Sieve test)
% Passing By Weight
A
100
30 - 65
25 55
15 40
8 20
28
100
79 95
40 75
30 60
20 45
15 30
5 20
100
50 85
35 65
25 50
15 30
5 20
100
60
100
50 85
40 70
25 45
5 - 20
100
55
100
40
100
20 50
6 20
100
70
100
55
100
30 70
8 25
AGGREGATE
Aggregates must be hard, durable, clean and essentially free
from clay and other deleterious materials.
PROPERTIES:
TESTING
Aggregate Impact Value (AIV)
Flakiness Index (FI)
Soundness
California Bearing Ratio (CBR)
Sieve
Table 2: Gradation limit for crushed aggregate road base from Spesification
of Roadworks (Jabatan Kerja Raya, 1988)
B.S Sieve
50.0 mm
37.5 mm
28.0 mm
20.0 mm
10.0 mm
5.00 mm
2.36 mm
2.00 mm
600 m
425 m
75 m
% Passing by Weight
Type I
Type II
100
95 100
60 80
40 60
25 40
15 30
8 22
08
100
85 100
70 100
60 90
40 65
30 55
20 40
10 25
2 10
LIME AND
PORTLAND CEMENT
Mix with crushed rock aggregate for road base
construction
Combined with aggregate for asphalt to serve
an adhesion and anti stripping agent
Add for 2% by weight of combined aggregate
(Jabatan Kerja Raya, 1988)
TESTING
Properties shall conform to the requirements of MS
522
Shall be dry, free flowing and free from agglomerations
at the time of use
For anti stripping purposes, stripping test need to be
conducted according to AASHTO T 182. Coated area
with bitumen at the end of the mixtures period of
immersion in water shall be not less than 95%.
The result will indicated that the effectiveness of the
lime or Portland cement used as anti stripping agent.
BITUMINOUS MATERIALS
Term of bitumen and tar
Term
Bitumen
Bitumen + aggregate
USA
United Kingdom
Bitumen
Asphaltic concrete
Asphalt
p/s Tar previously used as a binder to produce mixture. Sources from coal mine.
Binder Course
This layer is used to distribute load to the road base and provide the flat
surface to construct the wearing course.
The maximum size of aggregate used is 28 mm and mixed with percentage
of bitumen ranging from 4 6 %.
Wearing Course
Top layer with the main function to the safety of the road users.
The other functions of wearing course are listed as follows:
The maximum size of aggregate is 20 mm and mixed with bitumen with the
percentage ranging from 4.5 7 %.
The materials used to construct this mixture are aggregates, bitumen and filler.
1. Aggregates provide interlocking structure, sustain load and distribute to
the layer beneath.
2. Bitumen
3. Filler
to fill the voids in the mixture and improve the elasticity of the
bitumen to produce a durable mixture and to reduce bleeding
in bituminous mixture.
BITUMEN
In Malaysia, the term of bitumen refers to the binder material, which produces from
refinery of crude oil.
The mixture of bitumen and aggregate is called asphaltic concrete.
The chemical compositions of bitumen (Table 3)
Table 3: Chemical composition of bitumen
Minerals
Carbon
Hydrogen
Sulfur
Percentage
Content (%)
80 85
10
15
Nitrogen
Oxygen
<1
1. Penetration Bitumen
The grade is classified according to the penetration test ranging from 40 300
while based on the viscosity test ranging from 5 40.
2. Cutback Bitumen
Produced based on the bitumen with the percentage ranging from 50 80 %
mixed with the petroleum-based solvents.
Solvent will be evaporated
According to the rate of evaporation, this kind of bitumen can be classified into
three groups:
Rapid Curing (RC)
Medium Curing (MC)
Slow Curing (SC)
3. Emulsified Bitumen
Produced by mixing the bitumen (55 65 %) with water and emulsifier in the
colloidal rotor.
This situation will reduce the viscosity of bitumen and allow them to be used at
the low temperature.
The type of bitumen depends to the emulsifying agent that is used. The two
types of are as follows:
1. Anionic
Contains the negative bitumen globule.
Produced with positive emulsifying agent is used - alkali.
Suitable to be used with the aggregates which have positive charge like
limestone.
2. Cationic
. Contains the positive bitumen globule.
. Produced when negative emulsifying agent is used acid.
. It is suitable to be used with the aggregates which have negative charge like
sand, quartz and silica.
4. Blown Bitumen
Produced by heating the bitumen at high temperature and air is allowed
through the bitumen and it makes the bitumen become harder.
Basically, this type of bitumen is used for building materials especially for
roofs.
TESTING
In order to ensure the bitumen that be used fulfill the
specification, series of
testing can be conducted as follows:
Penetration
Softening Point
Ductility
Flash and Fire Point
Viscosity
Loss on Heating
Thin Film Oven Test
Specific Gravity
Solubility
AGGREGATES
Most of the aggregates used in the road construction were the natural
aggregates. However, there was also widely used the artificial aggregates such
as the waste material from the process of tin ore.
In road construction, the aggregates can be classified into three groups according
to the size as follows:
1. Coarse aggregates retained on the sieve 2.36 mm.
2. Fine aggregates
3. Filler
Quality requirements:
The weighted average loss of weight in the sodium sulphate soundness test
(5 cycles) shall be not more than 12%.
The water absorption shall be not more than 2%.
The gradation of the combined course and fine aggregates, together with ordinary
Portland cement added as an adhesion and anti-stripping agent and if necessary
any other mineral filler shall conform to the appropriate envelope shown in Table 4.
Table 4: Gradation limit for surface layer mixture (after Jabatan Kerja Raya, 2008)
Mix Type
Mix Designation
Wearing Course
ACW 14
Binder Course
ACB 14
ACB 28
% Passing By Weight
100
80 95
68 90
52 72
45 62
30 45
17 30
7 16
4 10
100
70 95
56 81
40 65
32 58
20 42
12 28
6 16
48
100
80 100
72 93
58 82
50 75
36 58
30 52
18 38
11 25
5 14
38
SOIL STABILISATION
Soil for sub-grade which has CBR value < 2% need to be replaced
with better import material
Increase construction cost
Stabilize in-situ to increase the strength reduce the construction cost
Methods chemical stabilisation and mechanical stabilization
STEP
1
STEP
2
STEP
3
STEP
4
STEP
5
STEP
6
Aggregate Selection
Binder Selection
Sample Preparation
Stability Determination
based on the combined results of Marshall stability and flow, density analysis and voids
analysis
Parameter
Wearing Course
Binder Course
Stability
>500kg
>450kg
Flow
>2.0mm
>2.0mm
Stiffness
>250kg
>225kg
3.0%-5.0%
3.0%-7.0%
75-85%
65-80%
ACW 14
5.0 7.0%
ACW 20
4.5 6.5%
ACB 14
4.5 6.5%
ACB 20
4.0 6.0%
ACB 28
4.0 6.0%
EXAMPLE
% AC
Density
Stability
Flow
Stiffness
VTM
VFB
4.0
2.259
1339.2
2.62
511.8
6.49
57.96
4.5
2.270
1469.3
2.79
526.0
5.33
65.50
5.0
2.289
1551.0
3.19
486.2
3.86
74.59
5.5
2.272
1321.3
3.25
407.0
3.89
76.06
6.0
2.260
1196.7
3.70
323.1
3.70
78.40
Parameter
Stability
Flow
Stiffness
VTM
VFB
Results
Specification
(Binder course, JKR 1988)
Remarks
1530 kg
3.04 mm
495 kg/mm
4.42 %
71.1%
> 450 kg
> 2.0 mm
> 225 kg/mm
3.0 7.0%
65 80%
OK
OK
OK
OK
OK
The End