TECHNOLOGY FOR AIR

POLLUTION CONTROL

TECHNIQUES WITHOUT USING

EMISSIONS CONTROL DEVICES

Process Change
Wind, Geothermal, Hydroelectric, or Solar Unit instead of Fossil
fired Unit.

Change in Fuel

e.g. Use of Low Sulfur Fuel, instead of High Sulfur fuel.

Good Operating Practices

Good Housekeeping

Maintenance

Plant Shutdown

COMMONLY USED METHODS FOR AIR

POLLUTION CONTROL
PARTICULATE

Cyclones
Electrostatic Precipitators
Fabric Filter

Wet Scrubbers

GASES

Adsorption Towers
Thermal Incernation
Catalytic Combustion

SOx CONTROL

GENERAL METHODS FOR CONTROL

OF SO2 EMISSIONS
Change to Low Sulfur Fuel

Natural Gas

Liquefied Natural Gas

Low Sulfur Oil

Low Sulfur Coal

Use Desulfurized Coal and Oil Increase

Effective Stack Height

Build Tall Stacks

Redistribution of Stack Gas Velocity Profile

Modification of Plume Buoyancy

GENERAL METHODS FOR

CONTROL OF SO2 EMISSIONS
Use Flue Gas Desulfurization Systems
(CONTD.)

Use Alternative Energy Sources, such as

Hydro-Power or Nuclear-Power

FLUE GAS
DESULFURIZATION

SO2 scrubbing, or Flue Gas Desulfurization

processes can be classified as:

Throwaway or Regenerative, depending upon whether the

recovered sulfur is discarded or recycled.

Wet or Dry, depending upon whether the scrubber is a liquid

or a solid.

Flue Gas Desulfurization Processes

The major flue gas desulfurization ( FGD ), processes are :

Limestone Scrubbing

Lime Scrubbing

Dual Alkali Processes

Lime Spray Drying

Wellman-Lord Process

LIMESTONE SCRUBBING

Limestone slurry is sprayed on the incoming

flue gas. The sulfur dioxide gets absorbed
The limestone and the sulfur dioxide react as
follows :
CaCO3 + H2O + 2SO2 ----> Ca+2 + 2HSO3-+ CO2
CaCO3 + 2HSO3-+ Ca+2 ----> 2CaSO3 + CO2 + H2O

LIME SCRUBBING

The equipment and the processes are similar to

those in limestone scrubbing Lime Scrubbing offers
better utilization of the reagent. The operation is
more flexible. The major disadvantage is the high
cost of lime compared to limestone.
The reactions occurring during lime scrubbing are :
CaO + H2O -----> Ca(OH)2
SO2 + H2O <----> H2SO3
H2SO3 + Ca(OH)2 -----> CaSO3.2 H2O
CaSO3.2 H2O + (1/2)O2 -----> CaSO4.2 H2O

DUAL ALKALI SYSTEM

Lime and Limestone scrubbing lead to deposits inside

spray tower.

The deposits can lead to plugging of the nozzles

through which the scrubbing slurry is sprayed.

The Dual Alkali system uses two regents to remove the

sulfur dioxide.

Sodium sulfite / Sodium hydroxide are used for the

absorption of sulfur dioxide inside the spray chamber.

The resulting sodium salts are soluble in water,so no

deposits are formed.

The spray water is treated with lime or limestone, along

with make-up sodium hydroxide or sodium carbonate.

The sulfite / sulfate ions are precipitated, and the

sodium hydroxide is regenerated.

LIME SPRAY DRYING

Lime
The

Slurry is sprayed into the chamber

sulfur dioxide is absorbed by the slurry

The

liquid-to-gas ratio is maintained such that the spray

dries before it reaches the bottom of the chamber

The dry solids are carried out with the gas, and are
collected in fabric filtration unit

This system needs lower maintenance, lower capital

costs, and lower energy usage

WELLMAN LORD
PROCESS

This process consists of the following

subprocesses:

Flue gas pre-treatment.

Sulfur dioxide absorption by sodium sulfite

Purge treatment

Sodium sulfite regeneration.

The concentrated sulfur dioxide stream is processed

to a marketable product.

The flue gas is pre - treated to remove the particulate.

The sodium sulfite neutralizes the sulfur dioxide :

Na2SO3 + SO2 + H2O -----> 2NaHSO3

WELLMAN LORD PROCESS

(CONTD.)

Some of the Na2SO3 reacts with O2 and the SO3

present in the flue gas to form Na2SO4 and NaHSO3.

Sodium sulfate does not help in the removal of sulfur

dioxide, and is removed. Part of the bisulfate stream is
chilled to precipitate the remaining bisulfate. The
remaining bisulfate stream is evaporated to release
the sulfur dioxide, and regenerate the bisulfite.

NOX CONTROL

BACKGROUND ON
NITROGEN OXIDES

There are seven known oxides of nitrogen :

NO

NO2

NO3

N2O

N2O3

N2O4

N2O5

NO and NO2 are the most common of the seven

oxides listed above. NOx released from stationary
sources is of two types

GENERAL METHODS FOR

CONTROL OF NOX EMISSIONS

NOx control can be achieved by:

Fuel Denitrogenation

Combustion Modification

Modification of operating conditions

Tail-end control equipment

Selective Catalytic Reduction

Selective Non - Catalytic Reduction

Electron Beam Radiation

Staged Combustion

FUEL DENITROGENATION
o One approach of fuel denitrogenation is to remove a
large part of the nitrogen contained in the fuels.
Nitrogen is removed from liquid fuels by mixing the
fuels with hydrogen gas, heating the mixture and
using a catalyst to cause nitrogen in the fuel and
gaseous hydrogen to unite. This produces ammonia
and cleaner fuel.

This technology can reduce the nitrogen contained in

both naturally occurring and synthetic fuels.

COMBUSTION
MODIFICATION

Combustion control uses one of the following

strategies:

Reduce peak temperatures of the flame zone. The

methods are :

increase the rate of flame cooling

decrease the adiabatic flame temperature by dilution

Reduce residence time in the flame zone. For this we,

change the shape of the flame zone

Reduce Oxygen concentration in the flame one. This

can be accomplished by:

decreasing the excess air

controlled mixing of fuel and air

using a fuel rich primary flame zone

MODIFICATION OF OPERATING
CONDITIONS

The operating conditions can be modified to

achieve significant reductions in the rate of
thermal NOx production. the various methods
are:

Low-excess firing

Off-stoichiometric combustion ( staged combustion )

Flue gas recirculation

Reduced air preheat

Reduced firing rates

Water Injection

TAIL-END CONTROL
PROCESSES
o

Combustion modification and modification of

operating conditions provide significant
reductions in NOx, but not enough to meet
regulations.

For further reduction in emissions, tail-end control

equipment is required.

Some of the control processes are:

Selective Catalytic Reduction

Selective Non-catalytic Reduction

Electron Beam Radiation

Staged Combustion

SELECTIVE CATALYTIC
REDUCTION (SCR)

In this process, the nitrogen oxides in the flue gases

are reduced to nitrogen

During this process, only the NOx species are reduced

NH3 is used as a reducing gas

The catalyst is a combination of titanium and

vanadium oxides. The reactions are given below :
4 NO + 4 NH3 + O2 -----> 4N2 + 6H2O
2NO2 + 4 NH3+ O2 -----> 3N2 + 6H2O

Selective catalytic reduction catalyst is best at around

300 too 400 oC.

Typical efficiencies are around 80 %

ELECTRON BEAM
RADIATION

This treatment process is under

development, and is not widely used. Work is
underway to determine the feasibility of
electron beam radiation for neutralizing
hazardous wastes and air toxics.

Irradiation of flue gases containing NOx or SOx

produce nitrate and sulfate ions.

The addition of water and ammonia produces

NH4NO3, and (NH4)2SO4

The solids are removed from the gas, and are

sold as fertilizers.

STAGED COMBUSTION

PRINCIPLE

Initially, less air is supplied to bring about incomplete

combustion

Nitrogen is not oxidized. Carbon particles and CO are

released.

In the second stage, more air is supplied to complete

the combustion of carbon and carbon monoxide.

30% to 50% reductions in NOx emissions are

achieved.

CARBON MONOXIDE
CONTROL

FORMATION OF CARBON
MONOXIDE

Due to insufficient oxygen

Factors affecting Carbon monoxide formation:

Fuel-air ratio

Degree of mixing

Temperature

GENERAL METHODS FOR

CONTROL OF CO EMISSIONS

Control carbon monoxide formation.

Note : CO & NOx control strategies are in conflict.

Stationary Sources

Proper Design

Installation

Operation

Maintenance

Process Industries

Burn in furnaces or waste heat boilers.

CARBON DIOXIDE
CONTROL

SOURCES OF CARBON
DIOXIDE

Human-Related Sources
Combustion of fossil fuels: Coal, Oil, and Natural
Gas in power plants, automobiles, and industrial
facilities
Use of petroleum-based products
Industrial processes: Iron and steel production,
cement, lime, and aluminum manufactures
Natural Sources
Volcanic eruptions
Ocean-atmosphere exchange
Plant photosynthesis

SOURCES OF CO2
EMISSIONS IN THE U.S.

(x-axis units are teragrams of CO2 equivalent)

Source: USEPA

CO2 EMISSIONS FROM FOSSIL

FUEL COMBUSTION BY SECTOR
AND FUEL TYPE

(y-axis units are teragrams of CO2 equivalent)

Source: USEPA

GENERAL METHODS FOR CONTROL

OF CO2 EMISSIONS

Reducing energy consumption, increasing the

efficiency of energy conversion

Switching to less carbon intensive fuels

Increasing the use of renewable sources

Sequestering CO2 through biological,

chemical, or physical processes

CONTROL OF MERCURY
EMISSIONS

MERCURY EMISSIONS

Mercury exists in trace amounts in

Fossil

fuels such as Coal, Oil, and Natural Gas

Vegetation
Waste products

Mercury is released to the atmosphere through

combustion or natural processes
It creates both human and environmental risks
Fish consumption is the primary pathway for
human and wildlife exposure
United states is the first country in the world to
regulate mercury emissions from coal-fired power
plants (March 15, 2005).

Types of
Sources

Source: Seingeur, 2004 and Mason and Sheu, 2002.

Worldwide Distribution of
Emissions

Source: Presentation by J. Pacyna and J. Munthe at mercury workshop in Brussels,

March 29-30, 2004

CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR

MERCURY EMISSIONS

Currently installed control devices for SO 2, NOX, and

particulates, in a power plant, remove some of the mercury
before releasing from the stack

Activated Carbon Injection:

Particles of activated carbon are injected into the exit gas

flow, downstream of the boiler. The mercury attaches to the
carbon particles and is removed in a particle control device

Thief process for the removal of mercury from flue gas:

It is a process which extracts partially burned coal from a

pulverized coal-fired combustor using a suction pipe, or
"thief," and injects the resulting sorbent into the flue gas to
capture the mercury.

PARTICULATE MATTER
CONTROL

GENERAL METHODS FOR

CONTROL OF PARTICULATE
Five Basic Types of Dust Collectors :
EMISSIONS

Gravity and Momentum collectors

Settling chambers, louvers, baffle chambers

Centrifugal Collectors

Cyclones

Mechanical centrifugal collectors

Fabric Filters

Baghouses

Fabric collectors

GENERAL METHODS FOR

CONTROL OF PARTICULATE
EMISSIONS (CONTD.)
Electrostatic Precipitators

Tubular
Plate
Wet
Dry

Wet Collectors
Spray towers
Impingement scrubbers
Wet cyclones
Peaked towers

Mobile bed scrubbers

PARTICULATE COLLECTION
MECHANISM

Gravity Settling

Centrifugal Impaction

Inertial Impaction

Direct Interception

Diffusion

Electrostatic Effects

INDUSTRIAL SOURCES OF
PARTICULATE EMISSIONS

Iron & Steel Mills, the blast furnaces, steel making

furnaces.

Petroleum Refineries, the catalyst regenerators, airblown asphalt stills, and sludge burners.

Portland cement industry

Asphalt batching plants

Production of sulfuric acid

Production of phosphoric acid

Soap and Synthetic detergent manufacturing

Glass & glass fiber industry

Instant coffee plants

EFFECTSOFPARTICULATE
EMISSIONS
Primary Effects
Reduction of visibility

size distribution and refractive index of the particles

direct absorption of light by particles
direct light scattering by particles
150 micro g / m3 concentration ~ average visibility of 5
miles
( satisfactory for air and ground transportation )

Soiling of nuisance

increase cost of building maintenance, cleaning of

furnishings, and households
threshold limit is 200 - 250 micro g / m 3 ( dust )
levels of 400 - 500 micro g / m3 considered as nuisance

CYCLONES

Principle

The particles are removed by the application of a

centrifugal force. The polluted gas stream is forced
into a vortex. the motion of the gas exerts a
centrifugal force on the particles, and they get
deposited on the inner surface of the cyclones

Overall collection

Ci
Co

inlet concentration
outlet concentration

CYCLONES (CONTD.)
Construction and Operation
The gas enters through the inlet, and is forced into a
spiral.
At the bottom, the gas reverses direction and flows
upwards.

To prevent particles in the incoming stream from

contaminatingthe clean gas, a vortex finder is
provided to separate them. the cleaned gas flows
out through the vortex finder.

CYCLONES (CONTD.)

Advantages of Cyclones

Cyclones have a lost capital cost

Reasonable high efficiency for specially designed cyclones.

They can be used under almost any operating condition.

Cyclones can be constructed of a wide variety of materials.

There are no moving parts, so there are no maintenance

requirements.

Disadvantages of Cyclones

They can be used for small particles

High pressure drops contribute to increased costs of

operation.

FABRIC FILTERS

Principle

The filters retain particles larger than the mesh size

Air and most of the smaller particles flow through.

Some of the smaller particles are retained due to
interception and diffusion.

The retained particles cause a reduction in the

mesh size.

The primary collection is on the layer of previously

deposited particles.

DESIGN OF FABRIC
FILTERS

The equation for fabric filters is based on

Darcys law for flow through porous media.
Fabric filtration can be represented by the
following equation:

S = K e + K sw
Where,
S = filter drag, N-min/m3
Ke = extrapolated clean filter drag, N-min/m 3
Ks = slope constant. Varies with the dust, gas and fabric, Nmin/kg-m
W= Areal dust density = LVt, where
L = dust loading (g/m3), V = velocity (m/s)

Both Ke and Ks are determined empirically from

pilot tests.

Fabric Filters

Total pressure drop

Pf

Pressure drop due to the fabric

Pp

Pressure drop due to the particulate layer

Ps

Pressure drop due to the bag house structure

ADVANTAGES OF FABRIC
FILTERS

Very high collection efficiency

They can operate over a wide range of

volumetric flow rates

The pressure drops are reasonably low.

Fabric Filter houses are modular in design,

and can be pre-assembled at the factory

FABRIC FILTERS (CONTD.)

Disadvantages of Fabric Filters

Fabric Filters require a large floor area.

The fabric is damaged at high temperature.

Ordinary fabrics cannot handle corrosive gases.

Fabric Filters cannot handle moist gas streams

A fabric filtration unit is a potential fire hazard

Darcys equation

Pf

Pressure drop N/m2

Pp

Pressure drop N/m2

Df Depth of filter in the direction of flow (m)

Dp

Depth of particulate layer in the direction of flow (m)

Gas viscosity kg/m-s

V superficial filtering velocity m/min
Kf , K p

Permeability (filter & particulate layer m 2)

60

Conversion factor /min

V = Q/A
Q volumetric gas flow rate m3/min
A cloth area m2

Dust Layer

L Dust loading kg/m3

t time of operation min
L Bulk density of the particulate layer kg/m 3

P = Pf + Pp

Filter Drag S = P/V

Areal dust density W = LVt
S= k1+k2W

ELECTROSTATIC
PRECIPITATOR

Principle

The particles in a polluted gas stream are charged by passing them

through an electric field.
The charged particles are led through collector plates
The collector plates carry charges opposite to that on the particles
The particles are attracted to these collector plates and are thus
removed from the gas steam

Construction and Operation of Electrostatic

Precipitator
Charging Electrodes in the form of thin wires are placed in the path of the
influent gas.
The charging electrodes generate a strong electric field, which charges
the particles as they flow through it.
The collector plates get deposited with the particles. the particles are
occasionally removed either by rapping or by washing the collector
plates.

DESIGN OF ELECTROSTATIC
PRECIPITATORS

The efficiency of removal of particles by an

Electrostatic Precipitator is given by

= fractional collection efficiency

w = drift velocity, m/min.
A = available collection area, m2
Q = volumetric flow rate m3/min

MIGRATION VELOCITY

Where,
q = charge (columbos)
Ep = collection field intensity (volts/m)
r = particle radius (m)
= dynamic viscosity of gas (Pa-S)
c = cunningham correction factor

Cunningham correction factor

where,
T = absolute temperature (k)
dp = diameter of particle (m)

ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATOR
(CONTD.)

Advantages of Electrostatic Precipitators

Electrostatic precipitators are capable very high

efficiency, generally of the order of 99.5-99.9%.
Since the electrostatic precipitators act on the
particles and not on the air, they can handle higher
loads with lower pressure drops.
They can operate at higher temperatures.
The operating costs are generally low.

Disadvantages of Electrostatic Precipitators

The initial capital costs are high.

Although they can be designed for a variety of
operating conditions, they are not very flexible to
changes in the operating conditions, once installed.
Particulate with high resistivity may go uncollected .

WET SCRUBBERS

Principle

Wet scrubbers are used for removal of particles which

have a diameter of the order of 0.2 mm or higher.
Wet scrubbers work by spraying a stream of fine liquid
droplets on the incoming stream.
The droplets capture the particles
The liquid is subsequently removed for treatment.

Construction and Operation

A wet scrubber consists of a rectangular or circular

chamber in which nozzles are mounted.
The nozzles spray a stream of droplets on the incoming
gas stream
The droplets contact the particulate matter, and the
particles get sorbed.
The droplet size has to be optimized.

WET SCRUBBERS
(CONTD.)
o

Construction and Operation (contd.)

Smaller droplets provide better cleaning, but are more

difficult to remove from the cleaned stream.

The polluted spray is collected.

Particles are settled out or otherwise removed from

the liquid.

The liquid is recycled.

Wet scrubbers are also used for the removal of gases

from the air streams.

SCRUBBER

Efficiency

where,
k = Scrubber coefficient (m3 of gas/ m3 of liquid)
R = Liquid-to-gas flow rate (QL/QG)
= internal impaction parameter

Internal impaction parameter

where,
c = cunningham correction factor
p = particle density (kg/m3)
Vg = speed of gas at throat (m/sec)
dp = diameter of particle (m)
dd = diameter of droplet (m)
= dynamic viscosity of gas, (Pa-S)

WET SCRUBBERS
(CONTD.)

Advantages of Wet Scrubbers

Wet Scrubbers can handle incoming streams at high

temperature, thus removing the need for temperature

control equipment.
Wet scrubbers can handle high particle loading.

Loading fluctuations do not affect the removal efficiency.

They can handle explosive gases with little risk.

Gas adsorption and dust collection are handled in one unit.

Corrosive gases and dusts are neutralized.

Disadvantages of Wet Scrubbers

High potential for corrosive problems

Effluent scrubbing liquid poses a water pollution problem.

CYCLONE SPRAY
CHAMBERS

These scrubbers combine a cyclone with a

spray nozzle.

The added centrifugal force permits good

separation of the droplets, hence a smaller
droplet size can be used.

Cyclone spray chambers provide up to 95%

removal of particles > 5 micron.

ORIFICE SCRUBBERS

The gas is impacted onto a layer of the

scrubbing liquid.

The gas passes through the liquid, thus

removing almost all the particulate matter,
and a large portion of the probable gases.

After coming out of the liquid, the gas is

passed through baffles to remove the liquid
droplets.

IMPINGEMENT
SCRUBBERS

In Impingement scrubbers, the gas impacts a

layer of liquid/froth through a perforated tray.

Passing through this layer removes the

particulate matter.

The wet gas stream is then passed through a

mist collector.

VENTURI SCRUBBERS

The dirty gas is led in to the chamber at high

inlet velocities.

At the inlet throat, liquid at low pressure is

added to the gas stream

This increases the relative velocity between

the gas and the droplets, thus increasing the
efficiency of removal.

Efficiencies of the range of 95% for particles

larger than 0.2 mm have been obtained.

VENTURI SCRUBBER
Absolute Pressure Drop

p = pressure drop ( cm of water)

ug = gas velocity (cm/s)
Qt = liquid volume flow rate
Qg = gas volume flow rate

HYDROCARBON
CONTROL

GENERAL METHODS FOR

CONTROL OF HYDROCARBON
EMISSIONS
Incineration or after burning

Direct flame incineration

Thermal incineration

Catalytic incineration

VOC INCINERATORS

Principle

VOC incinerators thermally oxidize the effluent stream,

in the presence of excess air.

The complete oxidation of the VOC results in the

formation of carbon monoxide and water. The reaction
proceeds as follows:

CxHy + ( x + y/4 ) O2 x CO2 + (y/2) H2O

Operation
The most important parameters in the design and
operation of an incineration system are what are called
the
' three T's ' Temperature, Turbulence, and residence Time.

VOC INCINERATORS
(CONTD.)

Temperature

The reaction kinetics are very sensitive to temperature

The higher the temperature, the faster the reaction

Timing

A certain time has to be provided for the reaction to

proceed

Turbulence

Turbulence promotes mixing between the VOC's and oxygen

Proper mixing helps the reaction to proceed to completion
in the given time.

VOC INCINERATORS
(CONTD.)

The various methods for incineration are:

Elevated fires, for concentrated streams

Direct thermal oxidation, for dilute streams

Catalytic oxidation, for dilute streams.

Xi volume of i component in the mixture

Xm volume of mixture
LELi LEL of i component

GASES

AIR POLLUTION CONTROL

FOR GASES

Adsorption Towers

Thermal Incernation

Catalytic Combustion

ADSORPTION TOWERS

Principle

Adsorption towers use adsorbents to remove the

impurities from the gas stream.

The impurities bind either physically or chemically to

the adsorbing material.

The impurities can be recovered by regenerating the

adsorbent.

Adsorption towers can remove low concentrations of

impurities from the flue gas stream.

ADSORPTION TOWERS
(CONTD.)
Construction

and Operation

Adsorption towers consist of cylinders packed with the

adsorbent.
The adsorbent is supported on a heavy screen
Since adsorption is temperature dependent, the flue gas is
temperature conditioned.
Vapor monitors are provided to detect for large concentrations
in the effluent. Large concentrations of the pollutant in the
effluent indicate that the adsorbent needs to be regenerated.

Advantages of Adsorption Towers

Very low concentrations of pollutants can be removed.
Energy consumption is low.
Do not need much maintenance.
Economically valuable material can be recovered during
regeneration.

ADSORPTION TOWERS
(CONTD.)

Disadvantages of adsorption Towers

Operation is not continuous.

They can only be used for specific pollutants.

Extensive temperature pre-conditioning equipment

to be installed.

Despite regeneration, the capacity of the adsorbent

decreases with use.

INITIAL PLUME RADIUS

Initial Standard Deviation:

Where,
M = mass of liquid
= density of the plume

= R/2.15

Adjustment 1

where,
w = initial width of the plume
h = initial width of the plume

Adjustment -2

where,
H = length scale of the spill

PROBLEM

Estimate the net cloth area for a shaker bag

house that must filter 40,000 cfm of air with
10 grams of flour dust per cubic foot of air.
Also specify the number of components to be
used and calculate the total number of bags
required if each bag is 8 feet long and 0.5
feet in diameter. The maximum filtering
velocity for flour dust is 2.5 ft/min.

SOLUTION
Step 1:
Calculate total area and number of components
required. A = Q/V
Step 2:
Calculate the area of each bag.
A = (d)l
Step 3:
Calculate the total number of bags required.
Number of bags required = Total area / Area
per bag
= 1270 bags