Nuclear Systematics and Rutherford scattering

Terminology

Atomic number (Z) is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom, and also the
number of electrons in a neutral atom
Nucleon: proton (Z) or neutron (N)
Nuclide: nucleus uniquely specified by the values of N & Z
Mass number (A) is the total number of nucleons in a nucleus (A=Z+N)
Isotopes: nuclides with the same protons (Z) e.g. 235U and 238U
Isotones: nuclides with the same neutrons (N) e.g. 2H (d) and 3He
Isobars: nuclides with the same A
Atomic mass unit (u): one-twelfth of the mass of a neutral atom of 12C (six protons, six
neutrons, and six electrons). 1 u = 1.66 x 1027 kg = 931.5 MeV/c2
Atomic mass is the mass of a neutral atom and includes the masses of protons,
neutrons, and electrons as well as all the binding energy.
Nuclear mass is the mass of the nucleus and includes the masses of the protons and
neutrons as well as the nuclear binding energy, but does not include the mass of the
atomic electrons or electronic binding energy.
Radioisotopes: members of a family of unstable nuclides with a common value of Z

Units

SI units are fine for macroscopic objects like

footballs but are very inconvenient for nuclei and
particles use natural units.
Energy: 1 eV = energy gained by electron in being
accelerated by 1V.
Mass: MeV/c2 (or GeV/c2)
1 MeV/c2 = 1.78X10-30 kg. 1 GeV/c2 = 1.78X10-27 kg.
Or use Atomic Mass Unit defined by mass of 12C= 12 u

Momentum: MeV/c (or GeV/c)

1 eV/c = e/c kg m s-1

Cross sections:
1 barn =10-28 m2

Length: fermi (fm)

1 fm = 10-15 m.
By Tony Weidberg

Properties of nucleons

http://www.phys.unsw.edu.au/PHYS3050

Chart of the Nuclides

Proton number

Z=N

* Unstable nuclei on either side of

stable ones
* Small Z tendency for Z=N
* Large Z characterized by N>Z

Neutron number

Behaviour of nucleus is determined by the combinations of protons and neutrons

Behaviour of nucleus is determined by strong and electromagnetic interactions
At first sight we would expect the more neutrons the more strongly bound
the nucleus but in fact there is a tendency for Z = N
Further from Z=N, the more unstable the nuclide becomes

The number of unstable nuclei is around 2000 but is always increasing.

* Tendency for even Z even N to be the most stable nuclei
* Even Odd, and Odd Even configurations are equally likely
* Almost no Odd Z Odd N are stable, and these are interesting
small nuclei such as 2 H , 6 Li , 10 B , 14C
1

Rutherford classified radioactivity

Awarded Nobel prize in chemistry 1908
for investigations into the disintegration of
the elements and the chemistry of
radioactive substances
Together with Geiger and Marsden
scattered alpha particles from atomic
nuclei and produced the theory of
Rutherford Scattering.
Postulated the existence of the neutron
Ernest Rutherford (1871-1937)

The Geiger Marsden experiment

The Geiger Marsden Experiment

glass
214

Au

microscope

ZnS

Po

Lead lining

Their data

The Rutherford Cross Section Formula

p
p
p

p 2 p. sin / 2
vo
m

Secret of deriving the formula quickly is to express the momentum transfer in

two ways. The first way you can see in the top parallelogram diagram.

p 2m 0 sin
2

(1)

The Rutherford Cross Section Formula

The second way is by integrating the force on the alpha across the
trajectory: since we know by Newtons law and Coulombs law:

dp
Zze 2
F

r
2
dt (4 0 ) r

t2

t1

Zze 2
Zze 2 t 2
dt
cos .dt
cos . 2
2

t
( 4 0 ) r
( 4 0 ) 1
r

t2

t1

Zze 2
Zze 2 t2
dt
cos .dt
cos . 2
2

t
(4 0 )r
(4 0 ) 1
r

Eqn 3.5

At first sight this integral looks impossible because both and r are both functions of t.
However the conservation of angular momentum helps:

d
m 0b mr
dt

Eqn 3.1

From which one sees that:

dt
1

.d
2
r
0b
So that (3.5) becomes

2 2
Zze 2
p
cos .d

( 4 0 ) 0b 2 2

Zze 2

2
cos
(4 0 ) 0b
2

Now we can equate this with the first method of finding p

Zze 2

p 2m 0 . sin 2
. cos
2
(4 0 )b
2

This allows us to get the impact parameter b as a function of

Zze 2
1
Zze 2
1

b
cot

cot

s
cot
0
(4 0 )m 02
2 2 ( 4 0 ) 12 m 02
2 2
2
Where S0 is the distance of closest approach for head on collision

1
m 02
2

Coulomb potential

Zze 2
V (r )
(4 0 )r
so

* All particles scattered by more than some value of must have impact
parameters less than b. So that cross-section for scattering into any angle
greater than must be:
1

Eqn(3.9)
b 2 s02 cot 2
4
2

Particles fly off into solid angle given by:

d 2 sin d

The differential scattering cross-section is defined as:

d
d d
d 1
1
2
2

s
cot
0
d
d d d 4
2 2 sin
1

1
1
1
s02 .2 cot .
. .
4
2 sin 2 2 4 sin cos
2
2
2
1 2

1 2
1

s0 csc 4
s0

16
2 16
sin 4
2

Distance of closest approach

2
b
Zze

2
2
1
1
mv

m
v

o
o
2
2
(4 0 ) d
d

The distance of closest approach d will be determined by:

2

2
b
Zze

2
2
1
1
mv

m
v

o
o
2
2
(4 0 )d
d

Using:

Zze 2
s0
( 4 0 ) 2 . 12 mv02

&

1

b s0 cot
2
2

2
2 b
2 s0
1
1
1
2 mv0
2 mv0 2 mv0
d
d
2

s
b
1 0
d
d
2

d d

s0 s0

b d
d
1

.cot 2
s0
4

s0 s0

Solution of this quadratic gives:

d
1

1 cosec
s0 2
2

0
2

we get -

Failure of the Rutherford Formula

Increasing energy and constant angle

Increasing angle and constant energy

Failure of the formula occurs because the distance of closest approach is less than the
diameter of the nucleus. This can happen if (a) the angle of scatter is large or (b) the
energy of the particle is large enough. With Alpha particles from radioactive sources this
is difficult. But with those from accelerators it becomes possible to touch the nucleus
and find out its size because the distance of closest approach is given by:

d s0 1 cosec
2
2