Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
By
Prof.B.Ashok
CALIBRATION
Definition:
To
change
the
instruments output to correspond to
a standard reading
New electronic instruments with
digital
readout
features
stay
calibrated longer
Analog meters use a needle on the
meter face to indicate value readings
Follow manufacturers instructions
for the calibration of individual meters
AUDITING
1. Calibration process
The purpose of calibration is to ensure that the
measuring accuracy is known over the whole
measurement range under specified environmental
conditions for calibration.
Input
Input(whole
(whole
measuring
measuringrange)
range)
Environmental
Environmental
Conditions
Conditions
(Modifying
(ModifyingInputs)
Inputs)
Instrument
Instrumenttotobebe
calibrated
calibrated
Instrument
InstrumentOutput
Output
Instrument
Instrumentofof
Higher
HigherStandard
Standard
The
Theinput
inputvalue
value
with
known
with known
accuracy
accuracy
Standard
Standard
Instrument
Instrument
Ensure
Ensurethe
the
calibration
is
calibration isdone
done
under
the
specified
under the specified
environmental
environmental
conditions
conditions
Calibration of Instrument
Sensor Types
A. Based on power
requirement:
1. Active: require
external power, called
excitation signal, for the
operation
2. Passive: directly
generate electrical signal
in response to the
external stimulus
B. Based on sensor
placement:
1. Contact sensors
2. Non-contact
MEASUREMENT OF SPEED
An objects position is measured from a reference
point
To describe the position of an object, you can use
distance and direction
To calculate speed, you need to know both distance
and time
Objects that travel at different speeds move different
distances in the same amount of time
Speed can be calculated by dividing the distance an
object travels by the time it takes to cover the
distance
The formula for finding speed is
Inductive
Speed
sensors
Hall speed sensor
Optical type.
Position
encoders ,etc.
MEASUREMENT OF FORCE
The fundamental operating principles of force,
acceleration, and torque instrumentation are closely
allied to the piezoelectric and strain gage devices
used to measure static and dynamic pressures.
TORQUE SENSORS
STRAIN GUAGES
Many types of force\torque sensors are
based on strain gage measurements.
The measurements can be directly related to
stress and force and may be used to measure
other
types
of
variables
including
displacement and acceleration
WHATS
A
STRAIN
GAUGE?
The electrical resistance of a
length of wire varies in direct
proportion to the change in any
strain applied to it. Thats the
principle upon which the strain
gauge works.
MEASUREMENT OF TORQUE
Torque is a measure of the
forces that causes an object to
rotate.
Reaction
torque
sensors
measure static and dynamic
torque with a stationary or nonrotating transducer.
Rotary torque sensors use rotary
transducers to measure torque.
TECHNOLOGY
TORQUE MEASUREMENT
MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE
Types
RTD (Resistance
Temperature Detector)
Thermistor
Thermocouple
Bimetallic Strip.
How it works:
Utilizes the fact that
resistance of a metal
changes
with
temperature.
Make up:
Traditionally made up of
platinum, nickel, iron or
copper wound around an
insulator.
Temperature range:
From about -196C to
482C.
Advantages:
Stable
Very
accurate
Change in
resistance
is linear
Disadvantages:
Expensive
Current source
required
Small change
in resistance
Self heating
Less rugged
than
thermocouples.
Thermistor
Advantages:
Very sensitive
(has the largest
output change
from input
temperature)
Quick response
More accurate
than RTD and
Thermocouples
Disadvantages:
Output is a nonlinear function
Limited
temperature
range.
Require a current
source
Self heating
Fragile
THERMOCOUPLES
Seebeck effect
If two wires of dissimilar metals are joined at
both ends and one end is heated, current will
flow.
If the circuit is broken, there will be an open
circuit voltage across the wires.
Voltage is a function of temperature and metal
types
V T
A few Thermocouples
BIMETAL SENSORS
Two metal strips welded together
Each metal strip has different coefficient
of expansion
As they expand, the two strips bend. This
motion can then be used to:
move a dial
actuate a sensor (pressure sensor for
example)
rotate a potentiometer
close a switch
MEASUREMENT OF LIGHT
Light sensors are
used in cameras,
infrared detectors,
and ambient
lighting applications
Sensor is
composed of
photoconductor
such as a
photoresistor,
photodiode, or
phototransistor
PHOTORESISTOR
S
Light sensitive variable
resistors.
103
102
101
10 10 10
1
10
Symbol
1.
2.
Manometer method
3.
4.
5.
1.
2.
3.
Bellows
Uses flexible element as sensor. As
pressure changed ,the flexible element
moved, and this motion was used to
rotate a pointer in front of dial.
37
Bellows
stainless steel,
beryllium copper etc.
1.
2.
3.
MEASUREMENT OF FLOW
Flow measured
as a quantity or
rate of flow
In terms of
weight or flow
Measurement of level
Level is measured at the position of the
interface between phases, where the
phases
are
immiscible
liquid/gas,
liquid/liquid
solid/gas,
and
or
after
Types
Direct
Indirect
In-Direct Level
Measurement Type
MEASUREMENT OF HUMIDITY
Humidity is defined as the water vapor content in
the air or other gases
Measured as
Absolute Humidity
Ratio of the mass of water vapor to the
volume of air or gas
Relative Humidity or RH
The ratio of the moisture content of air
compared to the saturated moisture level at
the same temperature or pressure
Dew Point
Temperature and pressure at which gas
begins to condense into liquids
57
HUMIDITY
SENSOR
TYPES
Capacitive RH sensor
Change in dielectric constant is directly
proportional to relative humidity in the
environment
Very low temperature effect
0.2-0.5 pF change in capacitance for 1%
RH change
Resistive Humidity Sensors
Measure the impedance change
Inverse exponential relationship to
humidity
Mostly used are conductive polymer, salt
etc.
Ceramic coated to avoid condensation
effect
58
MEASUREMENT OF SOUND
A microphone is an acoustic to electric
transducer that converts sound into an electrical
signal.
Microphones capture sound waves with a thin,
flexible diaphragm. The vibrations of this
element are then converted by various methods
into an electrical signal that is an analog of the
original sound.
Most microphones in use today use
electromagnetic generation (dynamic
microphones), capacitance change (condenser
microphones) or piezo-electric generation to
produce the signal from mechanical vibration.
60
61
ACCELEROMETER
SENSOR: MEMS
Types
Piezo-resistive
Proof mass suspended with piezoresistive beams
Simple structure, fabrication, and
readout (low imp. output)
Large temp. sensitivity, smaller
overall sensitivity than capacitance
devices
Capacitive
Acceleration is measured by the
capacitance between a fixed plate and
plate on the proof mass.
Stable (temperature, drift)
Can be susceptible to EMI.
Cost: approx $10.
62
MOTION
DETECTOR: TYPES
Photo Sensor
Microwave- Or Ultrasonic-based
Burst of microwave radio energy and waits for
the reflected energy to bounce back.
When a person moves into the field of
microwave energy, it changes the amount of
reflected energy or the time it takes for the
reflection to arrive.
The same thing can be done with ultrasonic
sound waves, bouncing them off a target and
waiting for the echo.
Types:
Electric
Hydraulic
Mechanical
Pneumatic
Servo
Piezoelectric
Electro-active
THAN
K
YOU