Conductivity : It is the reciprocal of resistivity .

=1/
which depends on number of charge carriers present in the material.

Relation between Mobility and Conductivity :

L
I

A
I

Block of length of L & area of cross-section A is connected to external

electric field.
Let n be the concentration(no. of electrons per unit volume) of free
electrons available.
Then total no. of free electrons in solid
N= nA L
The total charge present in the solid
Q= Ne = n A L e
The current through the solid
I= Q/t = n e L A/t
But
L/t = V d
the average drift velocity of
electrons in the solid

By Ohms law,

I=V/R = V A/L
I= EA
( where electrical field E = V/L, V=
P.d applied across L)
I /A= E
J = E or
=J/E
2
Drift velocity : In the absence of electric field, when electron
collides with the lattice, the direction in which it is moving gets
disturbed & it starts moving in different direction. Collision is a
random process & two directions do not have inter relation . On
average as many electrons pass from the left to right as those pass
from right to left, so that the net number of electrons crossing the
surface A per unit time will be Zero. Therefore net current due
to thermal motion of electrons is zero.
In the presence of external electric field, the electron
velocity suffers sudden changes in magnitude & direction.
In a steady state condition the net moment of Velectrons
in a
d
Vthof electric field is called drift &
direction opposite to that
corresponding mean velocity is called drift velocity V d.

Mobility of electrons : It is defined as the

magnitude of the drift velocity acquired by the
electrons per unit electric field.
If E is the app. elec. field & Vd drift velocity,
then
= Vd /E
Since E = J/ &
J = ne Vd
The above equation for mobility of electrons
becomes
= J / neJ
= / ne

or

= ne

Energy level splitting:

When atoms are isolated, there is no
interaction between electron wave
function. They have identical
electronic structure. As the spacing
between two atoms decreases
electron wave functions begin to
overlap.
The Pauli s exclusion principle says
that no two electrons in a given
interacting system have the same
quantum state. There must be
splitting of the discrete energy levels
belonging
to the
pair of atoms
rather
Energy band
formation
: When
atoms in a crystal
than
to individual
atoms.
This level splitting
interact,
the extent
of energy
phenomenon
known
as energy level
increases. Dueisto
this intermixing
of energy levels
splitting. Hence incase of a solid, instead of single
increases.
energy levels there will be energy bands. The closely

Example :-Consider diamond crystal formed by carbon

atoms.
Each isolated carbon atom has an electronic structure 1s2
2s2 2p2 in the ground state. Each atom has two 1S states,
two 2S states & two 2P states, & higher states available.
If we consider N atoms, there will be 2 N, 2N and 6N
states of 1S, 2S & 2P respectively.
As inter atomic spacing decreases , these energy levels
split into bands beginning with outer ( n = 2) shell.
The inner most shell n=1 is completely filled and it is very
close to nucleus . The possibility of splitting of energy
levels is less.
In n= 2 shell, out of 8 electronic states 4 are filled up & 4
are vacant. The outer discrete sub shells 2S,2P get
broadened out and overlap with each other.
If inter atomic distance is further decreased, a split occurs
between the upper four vacant states & lower four filled
states in outermost shell(n=2 in Carbon, n=3 in Si & n=4

The gap arises between conduction band and valence

band where no electronic energy levels are permitted is
called Forbidden energy gap. It increases with
decrease in inter atomic distance.
When forbidden energy
gap Eg=0 , it shows
overlapping region A
Eg: Cu, Al, Sb etc.
When forbidden energy
gap Eg=1ev , it
represents
semiconductor. In
diagram the region B.
C B
A
Eg: Si, Ge,Ar etc
When forbidden energy
gap Eg>5ev,
represents the
insulator. In diagram
Overlapping
1s2

Classification of solids based on Electrical

Conductivity
Conductor
Semiconductor
Insulator
CV
Valence band is full
Eg=1ev band
and conduction
VB
has few electrons at
room temp.

CB
Valence EG>5e
band is full to its
max. capacity
and
v
VB band is empty
conduction

2. Large number
of conduction
electrons
become available
with the supply
of negligible
energy does
exhibit high
value of
conductivity eg:Cu,Li

Small amount of
thermal energy can
transfer the electrons
from VB to CB. These
electrons can move
about under the
influence of small
applied field and
cause current.
Eg.Si, Ge

Thermal energy or room

temp. can not transfer
electrons from VB to CB.
Conduction of current is
not possible.
eg.:- Diamond

3. Total current is
simply a flow of
electrons

Total Current is due

There is no conduction of
to flow of electrons & current
holes.

4.There is no

Forbidden energy

CB
1. Valence
v band
VB
and conduction
bands are over
lapping

Forbidden energy gas is