Kuliah The Cell A To Z

The Cellular Level
of Organization
Histology Departement
2012
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
An Introduction to Cells
Cell Theory
Developed from Robert Hookes research
Cells are the building blocks of all plants and animals
All cells come from the division of preexisting cells
Cells are the smallest units that perform all vital
physiological functions
Each cell maintains homeostasis at the cellular level
Robert Hooke
English physicist
1665
Saw a slice of cork tree
tissue
Tiny chambers
Termed them cells
(looked like monks cells
in monastery)
Robert Hooke
Published his book
Micrographia
Contained drawings of
cork cells
Used early microscope
Anton Van Leeuwenhoek

Dutch businessman
1674
Perfected microscope
(about 300x)
Saw living things in pond
water
Animalcules
Observed bacteria (on wood
teeth) and protozoa
Matthias Schleiden
German botanist
1838
Concludes that all
plants are made up of
cells
Theodor Schwann
German zoologist
1839
Concluded that all
animals are made up of
cells
Rudolph Virchow
German
physician/pathologist
1855
Worked with eggs from
various organisms
Proposes that all cells
come from existing cells
Cell Theory
All living things are composed of cells.
Cells are the basic units of structure and
function in living things.
New cells are produced from existing
cells.
Janet Plowe
1931
Demonstrates that the cell membrane is a
physical structure, not an interface between
two liquids.
Lynn Margulis
1970
Proposes a theory that
certain organelles
were once free-living
cells themselves
Singer - Nicholson
1972
Fluid Mosaic Model
Membranes are phospholipid bilayers with
globular proteins embedded in them
Membrane is always moving
Made up of smaller pieces (mosaic)
An Introduction to Cells
Sex Cells (Germ Cells)
Reproductive cells
Male sperm
Female oocyte (a cell that develops into an egg)
Somatic Cells
Soma = body
All body cells except sex cells
Figure 3-1 Anatomy of a Model Cell
Plasma membrane
Nonmembranous organelles
Membranous organelles
Secretory vesicles
Centrosome and Centrioles

Cytoplasm contains two centrioles
at right angles; each centriole is
composed of 9 microtubule triplets
in a 9 0 array
Functions
Essential for
movement of
chromosomes
during cell
division;
organization of
microtubules in
cytoskeleton
Centrosome
Centrioles
CYTOSOL
Plasma membrane
Cytoskeleton
Proteins organized
in fine filaments or
slender tubes
Functions
Strength and
support;
movement of
cellular structures
and materials
Microfilament
Microtubule
Plasma Membrane
Lipid bilayer containing
phospholipids, steroids, proteins,
and
carbohydrates
Functions
Isolation;
protection;
sensitivity;
support;
controls entry
and exit of
materials
Cytosol (distributes
materials
by diffusion)
Free
ribosomes
Microvilli
Membrane extensions
containing microfilaments
Function
Increase surface
area to facilitate
absorption of
extra-cellular
materials
Plasma membrane
Plasma membrane
Cilia
Cilia are long extensions
containing microtubule
doublets in a 9 2 array (not
shown in the model cell)
Function
Movement of material over
cell surface
Proteasomes
Hollow cylinders of proteolytic
enzymes with regulatory
proteins at their ends
Functions
Breakdown and recycling of
damaged or abnormal intracellular
proteins
Ribosomes
RNA proteins; fixed ribosomes
bound to rough endoplasmic
reticulum, free ribosomes
scattered in cytoplasm
Function
Protein synthesis
Golgi apparatus
Stacks of flattened membranes
(cisternae) containing chambers
Functions
Storage, alteration, and packaging
of secretory products and
lysosomal enzymes
Mitochondria
Double membrane, with inner
membrane folds (cristae)
enclosing important metabolic
enzymes
Functions
Produce 95% of the ATP
required by the cell
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

NUCLEUS
Network of membranous
channels extending
throughout the
cytoplasm
Functions
Synthesis of secretory
products; intracellular
storage and transport
Peroxisomes
Vesicles containing
degradative enzymes
Plasma membrane
Functions
Catabolism of fats and other
organic compounds,
neutralization of toxic
compounds generated in
the process
Rough ER
modifies and
packages newly
synthesized
proteins
Smooth ER
synthesizes
lipids and
carbohydrates
Plasma membrane
Peroxisomes
Vesicles containing
degradative enzymes
Free
ribosomes
Functions
Catabolism of fats and other
organic compounds,
neutralization of toxic compounds
generated in the process
Lysosomes
Vesicles containing
digestive enzymes
Functions
Intracellular removal of
damaged organelles or
pathogens
Chromatin
NUCLEUS
Nuclear
envelope
Nucleolus
(site of rRNA
synthesis and
assembly of
ribosomal
subunits)
Nuclear
pore
NUCLEOPLASM
Nucleoplasm
containing
nucleotides,
enzymes,
nucleoproteins, and
chromatin;
surrounded by a
double membrane,
the nuclear envelope
Functions:
Control of
metabolism; storage
and processing of
genetic information;
control of protein
synthesis
3-1 Plasma Membrane

Extracellular Fluid (Interstitial Fluid)
A watery medium that surrounds a cell
Plasma membrane (cell membrane) separates
cytoplasm from the extracellular fluid
Cytoplasm
Cytosol = liquid
Intracellular structures collectively known as organelles
3-1 Plasma Membrane

Functions of the Plasma Membrane
Physical Isolation
Barrier
Regulation of Exchange with the Environment
Ions and nutrients enter
Wastes eliminated and cellular products released
3-1 Plasma Membrane

Functions of the Plasma Membrane
Sensitivity to the Environment
Extracellular fluid composition
Chemical signals
Structural Support
Anchors cells and tissues
3-1 Plasma Membrane

Membrane Lipids
Phospholipid bilayer
Hydrophilic heads toward watery environment, both
sides
Hydrophobic fatty-acid tails inside membrane
Barrier to ions and water soluble compounds
3-1 Plasma Membrane

Membrane Proteins
Integral Proteins
Within the membrane
Peripheral Proteins
Bound to inner or outer surface of the membrane
3-1 Plasma Membrane

Membrane Proteins
Anchoring Proteins (stabilizers)
Attach to inside or outside structures
Recognition Proteins (identifiers)
Label cells as normal or abnormal
Enzymes
Catalyze reactions
3-1 Plasma Membrane

Membrane Proteins
Receptor Proteins
Bind and respond to ligands (ions, hormones)
Carrier Proteins
Transport specific solutes through membrane
Channels
Regulate water flow and solutes through
membrane
3-1 Plasma Membrane

Membrane Carbohydrates
Proteoglycans, glycoproteins, and glycolipids
Extend outside cell membrane
Form sticky sugar coat (glycocalyx)
Functions of the glycocalyx

Lubrication and Protection
Anchoring and Locomotion
Specificity in Binding (receptors)
Recognition (immune response)
Figure 3-2 The Plasma Membrane
EXTRACELLULAR FLUID
Phospholipid Integral protein
bilayer
with channel
Glycolipids
of glycocalyx
Integral
glycoproteins
Hydrophobic
tails
Cholesterol
Gated
channel
CYTOPLASM
Peripheral
proteins
2 nm
Plasma
membrane
Hydrophilic
heads
Cytoskeleton
(Microfilaments)
3-2 Organelles and the Cytoplasm

Cytoplasm
All materials inside the cell and outside the nucleus
Cytosol (intracellular fluid)
Dissolved materials
Nutrients, ions, proteins, and waste products
High potassium/low sodium
High protein
High carbohydrate/low amino acid and fat
Organelles
Structures with specific functions

The Organelles
No membrane
Direct contact with cytosol
Include the cytoskeleton, microvilli, centrioles, cilia,
ribosomes, and proteasomes
Covered with plasma membrane
Isolated from cytosol
Include the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), the Golgi apparatus,
lysosomes, peroxisomes, and mitochondria
Nonmembranous Organelles
Six types of nonmembranous organelles

1. Cytoskeleton
2. Microvilli
3. Centrioles
4. Cilia
5. Ribosomes
6. Proteasomes

The Cytoskeleton
Structural proteins for shape and strength
Microfilaments
Intermediate filaments
Microtubules

The Cytoskeleton
Microfilaments thin filaments composed of the
protein actin
Provide additional mechanical strength
Interact with proteins for consistency
Pair with thick filaments of myosin for muscle movement

The Cytoskeleton
Intermediate filaments mid-sized between
microfilaments and thick filaments
Durable (collagen)
Strengthen cell and maintain shape
Stabilize organelles
Stabilize cell position

The Cytoskeleton
Microtubules large, hollow tubes of tubulin
protein
Attach to centrosome
Strengthen cell and anchor organelles
Change cell shape
Move vesicles within cell (kinesin and dynein)
Form spindle apparatus

The Cytoskeleton
Thick filaments
Myosin protein in muscle cells
Figure 3-3a The Cytoskeleton
Microvillus
Microfilaments
Plasma membrane
Terminal web
Mitochondrion
Intermediate
filaments
Endoplasmic
reticulum
Microtubule
Secretory
vesicle
The cytoskeleton provides strength and

structural support for the cell and its organelles.
Interactions between cytoskeletal components
are also important in moving organelles and in
changing the shape of the cell.
Figure 3-3b The Cytoskeleton
Microvillus
Microfilaments
Terminal web
The microfilaments and

microvilli of an intestinal cell.
Such an image, produced by a
scanning electron microscope,
is called a scanning electron
micrograph (SEM)
(SEM 30,000).
Figure 3-3c The Cytoskeleton
Microtubules (yellow) in a
living cell, as seen after
special fluorescent labeling
(LM 3200).

Microvilli
Increase surface area for absorption
Attach to cytoskeleton
Centrioles in the Centrosome

Centrioles form spindle apparatus during cell division
Centrosome cytoplasm surrounding centriole
Cilia
Small hair-like extensions
Cilia move fluids across the cell surface
Figure 3-4a Centrioles and Cilia

Microtubules
Centriole. A centriole consists

of nine microtubule triplets
(known as a 9 0 array). A pair
of centrioles orientated at right
angles to one another occupies
the centrosome. This
micrograph, produced by a
transmission electron
microscope, is called a TEM.
Figure 3-4b Centrioles and Cilia
Plasma membrane
Microtubules
Basal body
Cilium. A cilium contains nine pairs of

microtubules surrounding a central pair
(9 2 array). The basal body to which the cilium
is anchored has a structure similar to that of a
centriole.
Figure 3-4c Centrioles and Cilia
Power stroke
Return stroke
Ciliary movement. Action of a single

cilium. During the power stroke, the cilium is
relatively stiff; during the return stroke, it
bends and returns to its original position.

Ribosomes
Build polypeptides in protein synthesis
Two types
1. Free ribosomes in cytoplasm
Manufacture proteins for cell
2. Fixed ribosomes attached to ER
Manufacture proteins for secretion
Proteasomes
Contain enzymes (proteases)
Disassemble damaged proteins for recycling
Membranous Organelles
Five types of membranous organelles

1. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
2. Golgi apparatus
3. Lysosomes
4. Peroxisomes
5. Mitochondria

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
Endo- = within, plasm = cytoplasm, reticulum = network
Cisternae are storage chambers within membranes
Functions
1. Synthesis of proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids
2. Storage of synthesized molecules and materials
3. Transport of materials within the ER
4. Detoxification of drugs or toxins

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)
No ribosomes attached
Synthesizes lipids and carbohydrates
Phospholipids and cholesterol (membranes)
Steroid hormones (reproductive system)
Glycerides (storage in liver and fat cells)
Glycogen (storage in muscles)

Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
Surface covered with ribosomes
Active in protein and glycoprotein synthesis
Folds polypeptide protein structures
Encloses products in transport vesicles
Figure 3-5a The Endoplasmic Reticulum
Nucleus
Rough endoplasmic
reticulum with fixed
(attached) ribosomes
Ribosomes
The three-dimensional
relationships between the rough
and smooth endoplasmic reticula
are shown here.
Cisternae
Smooth
endoplasmic
reticulum
Figure 3-5b The Endoplasmic Reticulum
Rough endoplasmic
reticulum with fixed
(attached) ribosomes
Free
ribosomes
Smooth
endoplasmic
reticulum
Endoplasmic TEM 111,000
Reticulum
Rough endoplasmic
reticulum and free
ribosomes in the
cytoplasm of a cell.

Golgi Apparatus
Vesicles enter forming face and exit maturing face
Functions
1.
Modifies and packages secretions
Hormones or enzymes
Released through exocytosis
2.
Renews or modifies the plasma membrane
3.
Packages special enzymes within vesicles for use in

the cytoplasm
Figure 3-6a The Golgi Apparatus
Secretory
vesicles
Secretory
product
Here is a three-dimensional
view of the Golgi apparatus
with a cut edge.
Transport
vesicles
Figure 3-6b The Golgi Apparatus
Golgi apparatus
TEM 42,000
This is a sectional view of the Golgi

apparatus of an active secretory cell.
Figure 3-7 Protein Synthesis
Protein released
into cytoplasm
Smooth ER
Ribosome
DNA
Rough ER
mRNA
Cytoplasm
Nucleus
Transport
vesicle
Nuclear
pore
Cisternae
Lysosome
Exocytosis at
cell surface
Secreting
vesicle
Cis face
of Golgi
complex
Trans face
of Golgi
complex
Membrane
renewal
vesicle
Membrane
renewal
DNA
mRNA
Cytoplasm
Nucleus
Ribosome
Rough ER
mRNA
Cytoplasm
Protein released
into cytoplasm
Ribosome
Rough ER
Cytoplasm
Smooth ER
Transport
vesicle
Cisternae
Cis face
of Golgi
complex
Cisternae
Cis face
of Golgi
complex
Trans face
of Golgi
complex
Lysosome
Trans face
of Golgi
complex
Exocytosis at
cell surface
Secreting
vesicle
Trans face
of Golgi
complex
Membrane
renewal
vesicle
Membrane
renewal

Lysosomes
Powerful enzyme-containing vesicles
Lyso- = dissolve, soma = body
Primary lysosome
Formed by Golgi apparatus and inactive enzymes
Secondary lysosome
Lysosome fused with damaged organelle
Digestive enzymes activated
Toxic chemicals isolated
Lysosomes
Functions
1. Clean up inside cells
2. Autolysis

Clean Up inside Cells
Break down large molecules
Attack bacteria
Recycle damaged organelles
Eject wastes by exocytosis

Autolysis
Auto- = self, lysis = break
Self-destruction of damaged cells
Lysosome membranes break down
Digestive enzymes released
Cell decomposes
Cellular materials recycle
Figure 3-8 Lysosome Functions
Activation of lysosomes
occurs when:
Golgi
apparatus
Damaged organelle
Autolysis liberates
digestive enzymes
Secondary
lysosome
Primary
lysosome
Reabsorption
Reabsorption
Endosome
Secondary
lysosome
Extracellular
solid or fluid
Endocytosis
Exocytosis
ejects residue
Exocytosis
ejects residue
A primary lysosome fuses with

the membrane of another
organelle, such as a
mitochondrion
A primary lysosome fuses with

an endosome containing fluid
or solid materials from outside
the cell
The lysosomal membrane

breaks down during autolysis
following injury to, or death of,
the cell

Peroxisomes
Are enzyme-containing vesicles
Break down fatty acids, organic compounds
Produce hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)
Replicate by division

Membrane Flow
A continuous exchange of membrane parts by
vesicles
All membranous organelles (except mitochondria)
Allows adaptation and change

Mitochondria
Have smooth outer membrane and inner membrane
with numerous folds (cristae)
Matrix
Fluid around cristae
Mitochondrion takes chemical energy from food

(glucose)
Produces energy molecule ATP

Mitochondrial Energy Production
Glycolysis
Glucose to pyruvic acid (in cytosol)
Citric acid cycle (also known as the Krebs cycle and

the tricarboxylic acid cycle or TCA cycle)
Pyruvic acid to CO2 (in matrix)
Electron transport chain

Inner mitochondrial membrane

Mitochondrial Energy Production
Called aerobic metabolism (cellular respiration)
Mitochondria use oxygen to break down food and produce
ATP
Glucose + oxygen + ADP carbon dioxide + water + ATP
Figure 3-9a Mitochondria

Inner membrane
Organic molecules
and O2
Outer
membrane
Matrix
Cristae
Cytoplasm of cell Cristae
Enzymes
Matrix
Outer
membrane
Mitochondrion
TEM 46,332
Shown here is the three-dimensional organization and a

color-enhanced TEM of a typical mitochondrion in section.
Figure 3-9b Mitochondria
CYTOPLASM
Glucose
Glycolysis
Pyruvate
Citric Acid
Cycle
ADP
phosphate
Enzymes
and
coenzymes
of cristae
MATRIX
MITOCHONDRION
This is an overview of the role of mitochondria in energy

production. Mitochondria absorb short carbon chains (such as
pyruvate) and oxygen and generate carbon dioxide and ATP.
3-3 Cell Nucleus

Nucleus
Largest organelle
The cells control center
Nuclear envelope
Double membrane around the nucleus
Perinuclear space
Between the two layers of the nuclear envelope
Nuclear pores
Communication passages
Figure 3-10a The Nucleus
Nucleoplasm
Chromatin
Nucleolus
Nuclear envelope
Nuclear pore
Important nuclear
structures are shown here.
Nucleus
TEM 4800
Figure 3-10b The Nucleus
Nuclear pore
Perinuclear space
Nuclear envelope
A nuclear pore is a large

protein complex that spans
the nuclear envelope.
Figure 3-10c The Nucleus
Nuclear pores
Inner membrane of
nuclear envelope
Broken edge of
outer membrane
Outer membrane of
nuclear envelope
Nucleus
Freeze fracture SEM 9240
This cell was frozen and then broken apart to make its
internal structures visible. The technique, called freeze
fracture or freeze-etching, provides a unique perspective
on the internal organization of cells. The nuclear envelope
and nuclear pores are visible. The fracturing process
broke away part of the outer membrane of the nuclear
envelope, and the cut edge of the nucleus can be seen.
3-3 Cell Nucleus

Contents of the Nucleus
DNA
All information to build and run organisms
Nucleoplasm
Fluid containing ions, enzymes, nucleotides, and
some RNA
Nuclear matrix
Support filaments
3-3 Cell Nucleus

Nucleoli
Are related to protein production
Are made of RNA, enzymes, and histones
Synthesize rRNA and ribosomal subunits
Nucleosomes
DNA coiled around histones
3-3 Cell Nucleus

Chromatin
Loosely coiled DNA (cells not dividing)
Chromosomes
Tightly coiled DNA (cells dividing)
Figure 3-11 The Organization of DNA within the Nucleus
Telomeres of sister chromatids
Nucleus
Centromere
Kinetochore
Supercoiled
region
Cell prepared
for division
Visible
chromosome
Nondividing
cell
Chromatin in
nucleus
DNA
double
helix
Nucleosome
Histones
3-3 Cell Nucleus

Information Storage in the Nucleus
DNA
Instructions for every protein in the body
Gene
DNA instructions for one protein
Genetic code
The chemical language of DNA instructions
Sequence of bases (A, T, C, G)
Triplet code
3 bases = 1 amino acid
Cells Communication
Cell Junctions
Classification:
Cell Junctions Map:
Cell JunctionsSummary
Cell JunctionsSummary
contd
3-8 Cell Life Cycle

Cell Life Cycle
Most of a cells life is spent in a nondividing state
(interphase)
Body (somatic) cells divide in three stages
DNA replication duplicates genetic material exactly
Mitosis divides genetic material equally
Cytokinesis divides cytoplasm and organelles into two
daughter cells
3-8 Cell Life Cycle

DNA Replication
Helicases unwind the DNA strands
DNA polymerase
1.
Promotes bonding between the nitrogenous bases of

the DNA strand and complementary DNA nucleotides
dissolved in the nucleoplasm
2.
Links the nucleotides by covalent bonds
DNA polymerase works in one direction

Ligases piece together sections of DNA
A&P FLIX: DNA Replication
Figure 3-23 DNA Replication
DNA polymerase
Segment 2
DNA nucleotide
KEY
Adenine
Guanine
Cytosine
Thymine
Segment 1
DNA
polymerase
3-8 Cell Life Cycle

Interphase
The nondividing period
G-zero (G0) phase specialized cell functions only
G1 phase cell growth, organelle duplication, protein
synthesis
S phase DNA replication and histone synthesis
G2 phase finishes protein synthesis and centriole
replication
Figure 3-24 Stages of a Cells Life Cycle: Interphase
INTERPHASE
Most cells spend only a small part of their
time actively engaged in cell division.
Somatic cells spend the majority of their
functional lives in a state known as
interphase. During interphase, a cell
perfoms all its normal functions and, if
necessary, prepares for cell division.
When the activities of G1 have been completed,

the cell enters the S phase. Over the next 68
hours, the cell duplicates its chromosomes.
This involves DNA replication and
the synthesis of histones and other
proteins in the nucleus.
S
DNA
replication,
synthesis
of
histones
THE
CELL
CYCLE
Centrioles in
centrosome
Proph
MITOSIS
ase
Me
ta
ph
as
e
se
ha
ap
An
An interphase cell in the G0 phase is

not preparing for division, but is performing
all of the other functions appropriate for that
particular cell type. Some mature cells, such as
skeletal muscle cells and most neurons, remain in
G0 indefinitely and never divide. In contrast, stem cells,
which divide repeatedly with very brief interphase periods,
never enter G0.
Once DNA
replication has
ended, there is a brief
(25-hour) G2 phase
devoted to last-minute protein
synthesis and to the completion of centriole replication.
rs
hou
G2
Protein
synthesis
G0
rs
o5
2t
ho
u
rs
Nucleus
8 or more hours
6 to 8 hou
e
Telophas
A cell that is ready to

divide first enters the G1
phase. In this phase, the cell
makes enough mitochondria,
cytoskeletal elements, endoplasmic reticula, ribosomes,
Golgi membranes, and
cytosol for two functional
cells. Centriole replication begins in G1 and
commonly continues
G1
until G2. In cells
Normal
dividing at top
cell functions
speed, G1 may last
plus cell growth,
just 812 hours.
duplication of
organelles,
Such cells pour
protein
all their energy
synthesis
into mitosis, and
all other activities
cease. If G1 lasts
for days, weeks, or
months, preparation
for mitosis occurs as
the cells perform their
normal functions.
NE
OKI
CYT
to
SIS
MITOSIS AND
CYTOKINESIS
Interphase
During
interphase,
the DNA strands
are loosely
coiled and
chromosomes
cannot be seen.
THE
CELL
CYCLE
G0
An interphase cell in the G0 phase
is not preparing for division, but is
performing all of the other functions
appropriate for that particular cell type. Some
mature cells, such as skeletal muscle cells and
most neurons, remain in G0 indefinitely and never
divide. In contrast, stem cells, which divide repeatedly
with very brief interphase periods, never enter G0.
8 or more hours
INTERPHASE
G1
Normal
cell functions
plus cell growth,
duplication of
organelles,
protein
synthesis
THE
CELL
CYCLE
When the activities of G1 have been

completed, the cell enters the S phase.
Over the next 68 hours, the cell
duplicates its chromosomes. This
involves DNA replication and the
synthesis of histones and other
proteins in the nucleus.
6 to 8 hou
rs
S
DNA
replication,
synthesis
of
histones
THE
CELL
CYCLE
2t
THE
CELL
CYCLE
rs
hou
o5
G2
Protein
synthesis
Once DNA
replication
has ended, there
is a brief (25-hour)
G2 phase devoted to
last-minute protein
synthesis and to the
completion of centriole
replication.
3-8 Cell Life Cycle

Mitosis
Divides duplicated DNA into two sets of
chromosomes
DNA coils tightly into chromatids
Chromatids connect at a centromere
Protein complex around centromere is kinetochore
THE
CELL
CYCLE
Centrioles in
centrosome
Proph
as
Me
ta
p
MITOSIS
ha
s
ho
ur
s
Nucleus
s
ha
1
to
se
Telopha
ap
An
S
INE
K
O
CYT
IS
MITOSIS AND
CYTOKINESIS
Interphase
During
interphase,
the DNA strands
are loosely
coiled and
chromosomes
cannot be seen.
3-8 Cell Life Cycle

Mitosis
Prophase
Nucleoli disappear
Centriole pairs move to cell poles
Microtubules (spindle fibers) extend between centriole pairs
Nuclear envelope disappears
Spindle fibers attach to kinetochore
Metaphase
Chromosomes align in a central plane (metaphase plate)
Figure 3-24 Stages of a Cells Life Cycle: Mitosis and Cytokinesis
Centrioles
(two pairs)
Astral rays and

spindle fibers
Early prophase
Chromosome
with two sister
chromatids
Late prophase
Chromosomal Metaphase
microtubules
plate
Metaphase
3-8 Cell Life Cycle

Mitosis
Anaphase
Microtubules pull chromosomes apart
Daughter chromosomes group near centrioles
Telophase
Nuclear membranes re-form
Chromosomes uncoil
Nucleoli reappear
Cell has two complete nuclei
A&P FLIX: Mitosis
Daughter
chromosomes
Anaphase
Cleavage
furrow
Telophase
Daughter
cells
Cytokinesis
3-8 Cell Life Cycle

Cytokinesis
Division of the cytoplasm
Cleavage furrow around metaphase plate
Membrane closes, producing daughter cells
A dividing cell shown held

in place by a sucker pipe
to the left and being
injected with a needle
from the right.
3-8 Cell Life Cycle

The Mitotic Rate and Energy Use
Rate of cell division
Slower mitotic rate means longer cell life
Cell division requires energy (ATP)
Muscle cells, neurons rarely divide

Exposed cells (skin and digestive tract) live only days
or hours replenished by stem cells
3-9 Regulation of the Cell Life Cycle

Cell Division
Normally, cell division balances cell loss
Increased cell division
Internal factors (M-phase promoting factor, MPF)
Extracellular chemical factors (growth factors)
Decreased cell division

Repressor genes (faulty repressors cause cancers)
Worn out telomeres (terminal DNA segments)
Table 3-3 Chemical Factors Affecting Cell Division
Cell Differentiation
And hierarchy of organisms tissues
Cell differentiation
The process by which unspecialized cells
develop into their mature forms and functions
Embryonic Stem Cells
Undifferentiated (unspecialized)
Totipotent can develop into ANY type tissue
Adult Stem Cells

Pluripotent or multipotent can develop into certain
types of tissues.
Levels of organization
Level one = cells -basic unit of life; examples are

blood cells
Red (RBC, or erythrocytes)
White (leukocytes)
nerve cells (neurons),

bone cells (osteoblasts)
Levels of organization
Level two -tissues= Made up of cells that are similar in structure

and function and which work together to perform a specific
activity
-Humans have 4 basic tissues: connective, epithelial, muscle, and
nerve.
Connective tissue
include bones, ligaments, cartilage, blood, tendons

Epithelial tissue-
skin, the mucosa, and the serosa (lines body cavities and
internal organs)
Muscle tissue-
skeletal muscle, smooth muscle, and cardiac muscle

Nerve tissue-
brain, spinal cord, and nerves

EPITHELIUM (EPITHELIAL TISSUE)

Characterized by close cell apposition and
presence at a free surface
Arranged in single layer or in multilayers
Joined by specialized cell to cell junction create
a barrier between the free surface and the
adjascent connective tissue
Free surface,
outer
surface,
lining of the
body
cavities,
tubes and
ducts,
peritoneal
cavities, etc
Lined by
EPITHEL
IUM
Classification based on the layer
transitio
pseudostrati
Epithelial membranes are classified according to the number of cell layers between the basal lamina and the free surface and by the morphology of the
epithelial cells (Table 51). If the membrane is composed of a single layer of cells, it is called simple epithelium; if it is composed of more than one
cell layer, it is called stratified epithelium (Fig. 51). The morphology of the cells may be squamous (flat), cuboidal, or columnar when viewed in
sections taken perpendicular to the basement membrane. Stratified epithelia are classified by the morphology of the cells in their superficial layer
only. In addition to these two major classes of epithelia, which are further identified by cellular morphology, there are two other distinct types:
pseudostratified and transitional.
For more information see the Epithelium section of Chapter 5: Gartner and Hiatt: Color Textbook of Histology, 3rd ed. Philadelphia, W.B. Saunders, 2007.
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182
Specializations of the cell surface :

1.
Microvili 1,2,3,4
- finger like projections of the plasma membrane
- specialised for absorption ex. Small intestine
- complex of microvilli : brush or striated border
2.
Stereosilia 1,2,4
- longer branched microvilli
- visible with light microscope
- ex.: epididymis
3.
Cilia and Flagella 1,2

- Cilia are elongated, motile structures
- Flagella only in spermatozoa, much longer than Cilia, one
flagellum per cell
183
v
i
l
l
i
cilia
stereosil
ia
BBC 1
184
BBC 1
185
CONNECTIVE TISSUE
Characterized on the basis of its extraxellular
matrix
Separated form one another
The intervening spaces are occupied by
material produced by the cells
The extracellular material is called
extracellular matrix
Provides the
supportive and
connecting
framework (or
stroma) for all the
other tissues of the
body.
Connective tissue is
formed by :
1.Cells
2.Extracellular matrix
(ECM) : fiber and
1. CELLS
Fibroblast
Macrophage
Plasma cells
Mast cells
Adipose cells
Leucocyte
2. EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX
Fiber
Collagen system :
Collagen fiber
Reticular fiber
Elastic system
Ground substance
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190
MUSCLE TISSUE
Categorized on the basis of a functional
property, the ability of its cells to contract
Characterized by :
Large amounts of the contractile proteins actin
and myosin in their cytplasm
Their particular cellular arrengement in the tissue
Typically elongated and oriented with their

long axes in the same direction
NERVE TISSUE
Consists of nerve cells (neurons) and associated
supporting cells of several types
Highly specialized to transmit electrical impulses
from one site in the body to another , also
specialized to integrate those impulse
Receive and process information from the
external and internal environment
Figure 95Ultrastructure of a neuronal cell body.

(From Lentz TL: Cell Fine Structure: An Atlas of
Drawings of Whole-Cell Structure. Philadelphia, WB
Figure 94The various types of

2012 Pearson Education, neurons.
Inc.
Mucosa
Submucosa
Muscularis
externa
Serosa/
Adventitisa
3-10 Cell Division and Cancer

Cancer Develops in Steps
Abnormal cell
Primary tumor
Metastasis
Secondary tumor
3-10 Cell Division and Cancer

Tumor (Neoplasm)
Enlarged mass of cells
Abnormal cell growth and division
Benign tumor
Contained, not life threatening unless large
Malignant tumor
Spreads into surrounding tissues (invasion)
Starts new tumors (metastasis)
Uncontrolled division
Too many cells
form a tumor
Disrupts normal
cell activity
Takes nutrients
If one area only:
benign
If spreading:
malignant
The staging of a carcinoma has to do with

the size of the tumor, and the degree to
which it has penetrated. When the tumor is
small and has not penetrated the mucosal
layer, it is said to be stage I cancer. Stage II
tumors are into the muscle wall, and stage
III involves nearby lymph nodes. The rare
stage IV cancer has spread (metastasized)
to remote organs.
http://www.nytimes.com/imagepages/2007/08/01/health/adam/19222Stagesofcancer.html
Figure 3-25 The Development of Cancer
Abnormal
cell
Cell
divisions
Primary tumor cells

Secondary tumor cells
Growth of blood
vessels into tumor
Cell
Invasion
divisions
Penetration
Circulation
Escape
3-11 Differentiation
Differentiation
All cells carry complete DNA instructions for all body
functions
Cells specialize or differentiate
To form tissues (liver cells, fat cells, and neurons)
By turning off all genes not needed by that cell
All body cells, except sex cells, contain the same 46

chromosomes
Differentiation depends on which genes are active
and which are inactive
References
1. Molecular Biology of the Cell, 4th edition, Bruce
Alberts, Alexander Johnson, Julian Lewis, Martin Raff,
Keith Roberts, and Peter Walter, New York: Garland
Science; 2002.
2. Basic Histology Text & Atlas , 10th ed. , L. Carlos
Junquira MD, Jose Carneiro MD, Robert O. Kelley PhD,
Lange Medical Books, Mc Graw-Hill
3. Histology and Cell Biology: an Introduction to
Pathology, Epithelium, 2nd edition, Abraham L.
Kierszenbaum M. D. Ph. D, Mosby Elsevier Inc. 2007,
Philadelphia.
4. Functional Ultrastructure Atlas of Tissue Biology and
Pathology. Margit Pavelka, Jrgen Roth. 2005. SpringerVerlag/Wien. NewYork.

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The Cellular Level

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Anton Van Leeuwenhoek

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Figure 3-1 Anatomy of a Model Cell

Centrosome and Centrioles

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Figure 3-1 Anatomy of a Model Cell

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Figure 3-1 Anatomy of a Model Cell

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Figure 3-1 Anatomy of a Model Cell

Figure 3-1 Anatomy of a Model Cell

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

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Figure 3-1 Anatomy of a Model Cell

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Figure 3-1 Anatomy of a Model Cell

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3-1 Plasma Membrane

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3-1 Plasma Membrane

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3-1 Plasma Membrane

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3-1 Plasma Membrane

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3-1 Plasma Membrane

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3-1 Plasma Membrane

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3-1 Plasma Membrane

3-1 Plasma Membrane

Functions of the glycocalyx

Figure 3-2 The Plasma Membrane

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3-2 Organelles and the Cytoplasm

3-2 Organelles and the Cytoplasm

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3-2 Organelles and the Cytoplasm

Six types of nonmembranous organelles

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3-2 Organelles and the Cytoplasm

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3-2 Organelles and the Cytoplasm

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3-2 Organelles and the Cytoplasm

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3-2 Organelles and the Cytoplasm

3-2 Organelles and the Cytoplasm

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Figure 3-3a The Cytoskeleton

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The cytoskeleton provides strength and