Nat. Sci.

1
Physical Science

Branches of Physical Science

Includes everything from the Earth itself to the
universe beyond the Earth's atmosphere. The
branches are as follows.
Physics - Basic principles of matter and energy.
Chemistry - Matter, what it is made of and how
it reacts.
Astronomy - Study of universe or totality of
matter, energy, space and time.
Meteorology - Atmospheric study including
everything from the Earth's surface to the end
of the Earth's atmosphere.
Geology - Study of the Earth including its
history and composition.

What is matter?
Before the 20th century, the term matter
includedordinary mattercomposed ofatoms
and excluded other energy phenomena such
as lightor sound. This concept of matter may
be generalized from atoms to include any
objects having mass even when at rest., but
this is unclear because an object's masscan
arise from its (possibly massless) constituents'
motion and interaction energies. Thus, matter
does not have a universal definition, nor is it a
fundamental concept in physicstoday. Matter is
also used inaccurately as a general term for the
substance that makes up all observable
physical objects.

What is matter made of?

All the objects from everyday life that we encounter,
touch or squeeze are composed of atoms. This
atomic matter is in turn made up of interacting
subatomic particlesusually a nucleuscomposed of
protons (p+)andneutrons (no), and a cloud of orbiting
electrons (e-). Typically, science considers these
composite particles matter because they have both
rest mass and volume. However, not all particles with
rest mass have a classical volume, since fundamental
particles such as quarksandleptons (sometimes
equated with matter) are considered "point particles"
with no actual size or volume. Nevertheless, quarks
and leptons together make up "ordinary matter", and
their interactions contribute to the effective volume
of the composite particles that make up ordinary
matter.

Early ideas of atom

The term atom comes from the Greek word atomos
meaning indivisible. The Greek Philosopher,
particularly Democritus (400 BC) and Leucippus,
were the first to propose that matter is made of
atoms. Although Democritus did not know what
atoms were or how it looked liked , he hypothesized
that:
Atoms were small, hard particles made up of the
same material but of different shapes and sizes;
There were an infinite number of these atoms and
they were constantly in motion;
Atoms has the ability to combine with other
atoms; and
Atoms could no longer be divided into small
particles.

The history of atom and atomic

models
At the time, most Greek scientist believed
that matter could be divided infinitely and that
there is no need for atoms. They had no way of
verifying which was true. These were just plain
statements resulting from observations and
queries about the nature of matter. Surprisingly,
the early idea about the atom were quite close
was Democritus atomic
to what is knownThis
today.
model. It was simply a round
sphere with no electrons, protons,
or neutrons. Democritus created
the first atomic model. His
contribution helped people with
understanding the idea of an
atom, and helped other scientists
further look into the science of

The history of atom and atomic

models

Dalton's model of the atom

John Dalton proposed that all matter is
composed of very small things which he
called atoms. This was not a completely
new concept as the ancient Greeks
(notably Democritus) had proposed that all
matter is composed of small, indivisible
(cannot be divided) objects. When Dalton
proposed his model electrons and the
nucleus were unknown. Daltons model is
the same as with Democritus.

The history of atom and atomic

models

Dalton's Atomic Theory

1) All matter is made of atoms. Atoms are
indivisible and indestructible.
2) All atoms of a given element are
identical in mass and properties
3) Compounds are formed by a
combination of two or more different kinds
of atoms (Law of Definite Proportion)
4) A chemical reaction is a
rearrangement of atoms (Law of
Conservation of Mass)

The history of atom and atomic

models

Dalton's Atomic Theory

Modern atomic theory is, of course, a
little more involved than Dalton's theory
but the essence of Dalton's theory remains
valid. Today we know that atoms can be
destroyed via nuclear reactions but not by
chemical reactions. Also, there are
different kinds of atoms (differing by their
masses) within an element that are known
as "isotopes", but isotopes of an element
have the same chemical properties.
Dalton's theory quickly became the
theoretical foundation in chemistry.

The history of atom and atomic

models

Thomson discover electron

In 1897 the British physicist Joseph John (J.
J.) Thomson (18561940) discovered the
electron in a series of experiments designed
to study the nature of electric discharge in a
high-vacuum cathode-ray tube, an area
being investigated by numerous scientists
at the time. Thomson interpreted the
deflection of the rays by electrically
charged plates and magnets as evidence of
bodies much smaller than atomsthat he
calculated as having a very large value for
the
charge-to-mass
ratio.
Later
he
estimated the value of the charge itself.

The history of atom and atomic

models

In 1904 Thomson suggested a model of the

atom as a sphere of positive matter in
which
electrons
are
positioned
by
electrostatic forces.

The history of atom and atomic

models

Rutherford's Planetary Model of the Atom

Rutherford tested Thomson's hypothesis by
devising his "gold foil" experiment. Rutherford
reasoned that if Thomson's model was correct
then the mass of the atom was spread out
throughout the atom. Then, if he shot high
velocity alpha particles (helium nuclei) at an
atom then there would be very little to deflect
the alpha particles. He decided to test this with
a thin film of gold atoms. As expected, most
alpha particles went right through the gold foil
but to his amazement a few alpha particles
rebounded almost directly backward.

Ernest Rutherford

Rutherford shot alpha () particles at gold foil.

Zinc sulfide screen

Lead block

Thin gold foil

Radioactive
substance path of invisible
-particles

Most particles passed

through. Atoms are mostly
empty.
Some positive -particles
deflected or bounced back!
Thus, a nucleus (proton) is

The history of atom and atomic

models

Rutherford's Planetary Model of the Atom

These deflections were not consistent with
Thomson's model. Rutherford was forced to
discard the Plum Pudding model and reasoned
that the only way the alpha particles could be
deflected backwards was if most of the mass
in an atom was concentrated in a nucleus. He
thus developed the planetary model of the
atom which put all the protons in the nucleus
and the electrons orbited around the nucleus
like planets around the sun. Rutherford,
therefore discover the proton.

The history of atom and atomic

models

Rutherford's Planetary Model of the

Atom

Rutherford discover protons.

The history of atom and atomic

models

Chadwick discover neutron

James Chadwick played a vital role in
the atomic theory, as he discovered the
neutron in atoms. Neutrons are located in
the center of an atom, in the nucleus along
with the protons. They have neither a
positive
nor
negative
charge,
but
contribute the atomic weight with the
same effect as a proton. Chadwick
discovered this subatomic particle by using
a neutron chamber in his experiments.

The history of atom and atomic

models
Chadwick discover neutron
In the year of 1932 James Chadwick conducted a
series of experiments that would change the
world of science forever. Although we now know
that there are protons, neutrons, and electrons in
an atom. In Chadwick's time most of this wasstill
being experimented upon.In the beginning the
experiments he did were to prove that if alpha
particles (two protons and two neutrons bound
together)fell on light elements such as beryllium,
boron, and lithium gamma radiation (A type of
radioactive decay that has the shortest
wavelength but it is the most energetic form of
decay) would not be the. Chadwick's hypothesis
was correct, it wasn't gamma radiation but rather
a beam of neutrons.

The history of atom and atomic

models

Chadwick discover neutron

Chadwick's
experiment
includedprojecting alphaparticles toward
Beryllium "the light element". The emitted
particles after enduring the Beryllium
target (becomes neutrons) and fall on the
paraffin wax. The paraffin wax in
turnreleases another type of particle
(protons). At that time atoms were thought
to be made up of protons and electrons.

The history of atom and atomic

models
Chadwick discover neutron

The history of atom and atomic

models

Chadwick discover neutron

And so after much work and calculations
Chadwick
proved
that
theparticles
released from Beryllium were uncharged
and had a massslightly larger than
protons. Having discovered this he named
them neutrons.

The history of atom and atomic

models

Bohr Model of the atom

Neil Bohr proposed the Bohr Model of the Atom
in 1915. Because the Bohr Model is a
modification of the earlier Rutherford Model,
some people call Bohr's Model the RutherfordBohr (R-B) Model. The modern model of the atom
is based on quantum mechanics. The Bohr Model
contains some errors, but it is important because
it describes most of the accepted features of
atomic theory without all of the high-level math
of the modern version. The Bohr Model is a
planetary model in which the negatively-charged
electrons orbit a small, positively-charged
nucleus similar to the planets orbiting the Sun
(except that the orbits are not planar).

The history of atom and atomic

models
Bohr Model of the atom

The history of atom and atomic

models
Bohr-Rutherford Diagram

3 p+
3 n0

2e 1e

The history of atom and atomic

models

Modern Atomic Model (Electron Cloud

Model)
The electron cloud models is different from
the older Bohr. Bohr talked about electrons
orbiting the nucleus, in a way similar to how
the planets go around the sun. The electron
cloud model says that we can not know exactly
where an electron is at any given time, but the
electrons are more likely to be in specific areas.
It is theoretically possible, for an electron to be
a nearly infinite distance away from the atomic
nucleus it is orbiting, although the probability
of an electron decreases dramatically the
further away from the nucleus being search.

The history of atom and atomic

models

Modern Atomic Model (Electron Cloud

Model)
This is the most modern
and accepted way to
describe the situation.
The electron cloud model
was developed in 1925
by Erwin Schrodingerand
Werner Heisenberg.
The model is a way to help
visualize the most probable
position of electrons in an atom.

What is an atomic number,

mass number and isotopes?
Atoms of each element contain a characteristic
number of protons. The number of protons in an
atom is called theatomic number. The number
of protons is also equal to the number of
electrons. In contrast, the number of neutrons
for a given element can vary. Forms of the same
atom that differ only in their number of neutrons
are calledisotopes. Together, the number of
protons and the number of neutrons determine
an elementsmass number. Mass number =
protons + neutrons.
Thus,
neutrons = mass number protons.

Isotopes and Radioisotopes

Atoms of the same element that have different
numbers of neutrons are called isotopes.
Due to isotopes, mass #s are not round #s.
Li (6.9) is made up of both 6Li and 7Li.
Often, at least one isotope is unstable.
It breaks down, releasing radioactivity.
These types of isotopes are called
radioisotopes
Q- Sometimes an isotope is written without its
atomic number - e.g. 35S (or S-35). Why?
Q- Draw B-R diagrams for the two Li isotopes.
A- The atomic # of an element does not change
Although the number of neutrons can vary,
atoms have definite numbers of protons.

Li 7Li
3 p+
3 n0

2e 1e

3 p+
4 n0

2e 1e

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What is electronic configuration?

In atomic physicsandquantum chemistry,
theelectron
configurationis
the
distribution of electronsof an atom or
molecule(or other physical structure) in
atomic or molecular orbital. Electronic
configurations describe electrons as each
moving independently in an orbital, in an
average field created by all other orbitals.
Knowledge of the electron configuration of
different atoms is useful in understanding
the structure of the periodic tableof
elements. The concept is also useful for
describing the chemical bonds that hold
atoms together.

Filling Rules for Electron

Orbitals
Aufbau Principle: Electrons are added one at a time to
the lowest
energy orbitals available until all the electrons of the
atom
have been accounted for.
Pauli Exclusion Principle: An orbital can hold a
maximum of two electrons. To occupy the same
orbital, two electrons must spin in opposite
directions.
Hunds Rule: Electrons occupy equal-energy orbitals so
that a maximum number of unpaired electrons
results.
*Aufbau is German for building up

How to write the electronic

configuration of element?
Electrons are placed in shells according to
rules (Aufbau Principle):
s-orbitals can hold 2 electrons,
p-orbitals can hold 6,
d-orbitals can hold 10,
f-orbital can hold 14 electrons,
g-orbitals can hold18,
h-orbitals can hold 22 electrons, and
i-can hold 26 electrons

How to write the electronic

configuration of element?
Shells/ Sub- Orbita
Max. No. of
Energy shells
ls
electrons
levels
1
s
1
2=2
2
sp
2
2+6 = 8
3
spd
3
2+6+10 = 18
4
spdf
4
2+6+10+14 = 32
5
spdfg
5
2+6+10+14+18 = 50
6
spdfgh
6
2+6+10+14+18+22 =
72
7
spdfghi
7
2+6+10+14+18+22+2
6 = 98

General Rules
Pauli Exclusion Principle

Wolfgang Pauli

Each orbital can hold TWO electrons with

opposite spins.

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General Rules
6d

Aufbau Principle

7s

5f
6p

Lazy Tenant
Rule

3p

Energy

Electrons fill the

lowest energy
orbitals first.

5d
6s

5f

6p
5d
6s
5p

5s

4p
4s

7s

4f
5p

4d

6d

4d

5s
3d

4p
3d

4s
3p

3s
3s
2p

2p

2s
2s

1s
1s

Courtesy Christy Johannesson www.nisd.net/communicationsarts/pages/chem

4f

General Rules
Hunds Rule
Within a sublevel, place one
electron per orbital before pairing
them.
Empty Bus Seat Rule

WRONG

RIGHT

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Notation

15.9994

Orbital Diagram

O
8e-

2s

1s

2p

Electron Configuration

1s 2s 2p
2

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How to write the electronic

configuration of element?

Notation

32.066

Longhand Configuration

S 16e- 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4

Core Electrons

Valence Electrons

Shorthand
Configuration
-

16

S16e [Ne] 3s 3p
2

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Shorthand Configuration
neon's
A
electron configuration (1s22s22p6)
B

third energy level

[Ne] 3s1
C
D

one electron in the s orbital

orbital shape

Na = [1s22s22p6] 3s1electron configuration

The electrons in the outermost shell are the valence electrons the electrons on an atom that can be gained or lost in a chemical reaction.

Notation

16

32.066

Longhand Configuration

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p
2

16e-

Core Electrons

Valence Electrons

Shorthand Configuration

S 16e [Ne] 3s 3p
-

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Valance Electron and Oxidation

Number

Oxidation numberstell you how many valence

electrons an atom will gain, loose, or share when
forming a compound.The electrons in the outermost
shell are thevalence electrons the electrons on an
atom that can be gained or lost or share in a chemical
reaction.
A positive oxidation number indicates that the atom
tends to loose electrons, and atoms with negative
oxidation numbers tend to gain electrons.
Example:
Oxygen has an oxidation number of 2, which means it
tends to gain or share two electrons
Titanium has a +4 oxidation number, which means that
it looses four electrons
Helium has an oxidation number of 0, which means
that it does not form compounds

Stability
Electron Configuration Exceptions

Copper
EXPECT:

[Ar] 4s2 3d9

[

ACTUALLY:

[Ar] 4s1 3d10

[Ar 3d10 4s1

Copper gains stability with a full
d-sublevel.

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Stability
Electron Configuration Exceptions

Chromium
EXPECT:
ACTUALLY:

[Ar] 4s2 3d4

[Ar] 4s1 3d5

[Ar] 3d5 4s1

Chromium gains stability with a
half-full d-sublevel.

Courtesy Christy Johannesson www.nisd.net/communicationsarts/pages/chem

Shorthand
Configuration
Element symbol

Electron configuration

Ca

[Ar] 4s2

[Ar] 4s2 3d3

[He] 2s2 2p5

Ag

[Kr] 5s2 4d9

I
Xe
[Ar] 4s23d6 Fe
Sg

[Kr] 5s2 4d10 5p5

[Kr] 5s2 4d10 5p6
[He] 2s22p63s23p64s23d6
[Rn] 7s2 5f14 6d4

The Lewis Electron Dot Notation of

Elements

Lewis dot notation was first presented by Gilbert

Newton Lewis in 1916 in an article entitled The
Atom and Molecule published in the Journal of the
American Chemical Society.
This notation is just another way of showing details
about an atom's valence (outer) shell. Unlike the
electron configuration, which includesallcof the
electrons an atom has to offer, Lewis dots are only
concerned with electrons in the outer most shell of
an atom. This means that no matter how many
electrons an element contains, Lewis dots will never
number higher than eight. The Lewis Dot Notation
consists of thekernel(the nucleus and all of its
inner electrons that is represented by the elemental
symbol) and the valence electrons represented by
dots.

The Lewis Electron Dot Notation of

Elements

Here are the rules:

Rule #1. No side can have more than two
dots because each orbital can only hold two
electrons.
Rule #2. When filling the sides of the
element symbol each side gets one dot
before doubling up (Hund's Rule),. The
exceptions to this rule are hydrogen and
helium since their outer shells can only hold
two electrons. Every other element obeys
the second rule.

The Lewis Electron Dot Notation of

Elements

Carbon - 1s22s22p2 - four valence electrons

The Lewis Electron Dot for

Compound Formation
The formation of many common compounds can
be visualized with the use of Lewis symbols and
Lewis diagrams. In a Lewis symbol, the inner
closed shells of electrons can be considered as
included in chemical symbol for the element, and
the outer shell or valence electrons are
represented by dots. The dots are placed in four
groups of one or two electrons each, with 8
electrons representing a closed shell or noble gas
configuration. Lewis diagrams are useful for
visualizing bothionic andcovalent bonds. In the
idealized ionic bond, one atom gives up an
electron to the other, forming positive and
negative ions.

The Lewis Electron Dot for

Compound Formation

The conditions for bonds

are that the total charge
is zero and that each
atom must have a noble
gas electron
configuration.

The Lewis Electron Dot for

Compound Formation
The atoms share a pair of
electrons, and that pair is
referred to as a bonding pair.
The pairs of electrons which
do not participate in the bond
have traditionally been called
"lone pairs". A single bond can
be represented by the two
dots of the bonding pair, or by
a single line which represents
that pair. The single line
representation for a bond is
commonly used in drawing
Lewis
structures
for
molecules.

End of the Lesson

(Next Lesson
Chemical Bonding)