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Chapter 7

Mechanical Properties 2

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Recovery and Recrystallization

Cold worked metals

become brittle.
Reheating, which
increases ductility results
in recovery,
recrystallization and
grain growth.
This is called annealing
and changes material
properties.

7-2

(Adapted from Z.D. Jastrzebski, The Nature and Properties of Engineering Materials, 2d ed., Wiley, 1976,

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Effects on Mechanical Properties

Annealing decreases tensile strength, increases

ductility.
Example:
85% Cu &
15% Zn

Annealed 1 h
4000C

50% cold
rolled

Tensile strength
75 ksi
Ductility 3%

Tensile strength
45 ksi
Ductility 38 %

Factors affecting recrystalization:

Amount of prior deformation

Temperature and time

Initial grain size
Composition of metal
7-5

Figure 6.6

(After Metals Handbook, vol 2, 9 th ed., American Society of Metals, 1979, p.320)

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Facts About Recrystallization

7-6

A minimum amount of deformation is needed.

Smaller the deformation, higher the recrystallization
temperature.
Higher the temperature, lesser is the time required.
Greater the degree of deformation, smaller are the
recrystallized grains.
Larger the original grain
size, greater amount of
deformation is required
to produce equivalent
temperature.
Figure 6.7b
Recrystallization temperature
Continuous annealing
increases with purity of metals.

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Fracture of Metals Ductile Fracture

7-7

Fracture results in separation of stressed solid into two

or more parts.
Ductile fracture : High plastic deformation & slow
crack propagation.
Three steps :
Specimen forms neck and
cavities within neck.
Cavities form crack and
crack propagates towards
surface, perpendicular to stress.
Direction of crack changes to
450 resulting in cup-cone
fracture.

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Brittle Fracture

No significant plastic deformation before fracture.

Common at high strain rates and low temperature.
Three stages:

Plastic deformation concentrates

dislocation along slip planes.
Microcracks nucleate due to shear
stress where dislocations are blocked.
Crack propagates to fracture.

Example: HCP Zinc ingle crystal

under high stress along {0001}
plane undergoes brittle fracture.
Figure 6.11 & 6.13

7-8

SEM of ductile fracture

SEM of brittle fracture

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Ductile and Brittle Fractures

Ductile fracture

Brittle Fracture

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Brittle Fractures (cont..)

Brittle fractures are due to defects like
Folds
Undesirable grain flow
Porosity
Tears and Cracks
Corrosion damage
Embrittlement due to atomic hydrogen

At low operating temperature, ductile to brittle

transition takes place

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Toughness and Impact Testing

Toughness is a measure of energy absorbed before

failure.
Impact test measures the
ability of metal to absorb
impact.
Toughness is measured
using impact testing
machine

Figure 6.14
7-9

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Impact testing (Cont)

Also used to find the temperature range for ductile to

brittle transition.

Figure 6.15

7-10

Figure 6.16

Sinking of Titanic: Titanic was made up of steel which

has ductile brittle transition temperature 32 0C. On the
day of sinking, sea temperature was 2 0C which made the
the structure highly brittle and susceptible to more
damage.

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Fatigue of Metals

Metals often fail at much lower stress at cyclic loading

compared to static loading.
Crack nucleates at region of stress concentration and
propagates due to cyclic loading.
Failure occurs when
cross sectional area
of the metal too small
to withstand applied
Fracture started here
load.
Figure 6.19

Fatigue fractured
surface of keyed
shaft
7-13

th

Final rupture

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Fatigues Testing

Alternating compression and tension load is applied on

metal piece tapered towards center.

Figure 6.21
Figure 6.20

Stress to cause failure S

and number of cycles
required N are plotted
to form SN curve.

Figure 6.23

7-14

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Cyclic Stresses

Different types of stress cycles are possible (axial,

torsional and flexural).

Figure 6.24

Mean stress = m

max min
2

Stress range = r max min

7-15

max min
Stress amplitude = a
2

min
Stress range = R
max

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Structural Changes in Fatigue Process

Crack initiation first occurs.

Reversed directions of crack initiation caused surface
ridges and groves called slipband extrusion and
intrusion.
This is stage I and is very slow (10-10 m/cycle).
Crack growth changes
direction to be perpendicular to maximum tensile
stress (rate microns/sec).
Persistent slip bands
Sample ruptures by ductile
In copper crystal
failure when remaining
cross-sectional area is small to withstand the stress.
Figure 6.26
7-16

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Factors Affecting Fatigue Strength

Stress concentration: Fatigue strength is

reduced by stress concentration.
Surface roughness: Smoother surface
increases the fatigue strength.
Surface condition: Surface treatments like
carburizing and nitriding increases fatigue
life.
Environment: Chemically reactive
environment, which might result in
corrosion, decreases fatigue life.

7-17

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Creep in Metals

7-22

Creep is progressive deformation under constant

stress.
Important in high temperature applications.
Primary creep: creep rate
decreases with time due
to strain hardening.
Secondary creep: Creep
rate is constant due to
simultaneous strain hardening and recovery process.
Tertiary creep: Creep rate
increases with time leading
to necking and fracture.
Figure 6.30

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Creep Test

Creep test determines the effect of temperature and

stress on creep rate.
Metals are tested at constant stress at different
temperature & constant temperature with different
stress.
High temperature
or stress

Medium temperature
Figure 6.33
or stress
Creep strength: Stress to produce
Low temperature
Minimum creep rate of 10-5%/h
or stress
Figure 6.32
7-23

At a given temperature.

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Example 7.3
Determine the steady state creep rate for the copper alloy
whose creep curve is shown below.

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Creep Test (Cont..)

Creep rupture test is same as creep test but aimed at

failing the specimen.
Plotted as log stress
versus log rupture time.
Time for stress rupture
decreases with increased
stress and temperature.
Figure 6.35

Figure 6.34
7-24

th

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Case Study Analysis of Failed Fan Shaft

Requirements

Function Fan drive support

Material 1045 cold drawn steel
Yield strength 586 Mpa
Expected life 6440 Km (failed at 3600 km)

Visual examination (avoid additional damage)

Failure initiated at two points near fillet
Characteristic of reverse bending fracture

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Failed Shaft Further Analysis

Tensile test proved yield strength to be 369
MPa (lower than specified 586 MPa).
Metallographic examination revealed grain
structure to be equiaxed ( cold drawn metal has
elongated grains).
Conclusion: Material is not cold drawn it is
hot rolled !.
Lower fatigue strength and stress raiser
caused the failure of the shaft.

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Recent Advances: Strength + Ductility

Coarse grained low strength, high ductility

Nanocrystalline High strength, low ductility (because
of failure due to shear bands).
Ductile nanocrystalline copper : Can be produced by
Cold rolling at liquid nitrogen temperature

Additional cooling after each pass

Controlled annealing

Cold rolling creates dislocations

and cooling stops recovery
25 % microcrystalline grains
in a matrix of nanograins.

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Fatigue Behavior of Nanomaterials

Nanomaterials and Ultrafine Ni are found
to have higher endurance limit than
microcrystalline Ni.
Fatigue crack growth is increased in the
intermediate regime with decreasing grain
size.
Lower fatigue crack growth threshold Kth
observed for nanocrystalline metal.