Chapter

6
Cellular Respiration:
Obtaining Energy
from Food
PowerPoint Lectures created by Edward J. Zalisko for
Campbell Essential Biology, Sixth Edition, and
Campbell Essential Biology with Physiology, Fifth Edition
Eric J. Simon, Jean L. Dickey, Kelly A. Hogan, and Jane B. Reece

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Figure 6.0-1a

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Chemical Cycling between Photosynthesis and

Cellular Respiration
Cellular respiration uses O2 to help convert the
energy stored in the chemical bonds of organic
fuels to another source of chemical energy called
ATP.
Cells expend ATP for almost all their work.
In plants and animals, the production of ATP during
cellular respiration occurs mainly in organelles
called mitochondria.

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Chemical Cycling between Photosynthesis and

Cellular Respiration
The waste products of cellular respiration are CO 2
and H2O, the very same ingredients used for
photosynthesis.
Plants
store chemical energy via photosynthesis and then
harvest this energy via cellular respiration.

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Chemical Cycling between Photosynthesis and

Cellular Respiration
Plants usually make more organic molecules than
they need for fuel.
This photosynthetic surplus
provides material for the plant to grow or
can be stored, as starch in potatoes, for example.

People have always taken advantage of plants

photosynthetic abilities by eating them.

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Cellular Respiration: Aerobic Harvest of Food

Energy
Cellular respiration is
aerobic harvesting of chemical energy from organic
fuel molecules,
the main way that chemical energy is harvested
from food and converted to ATP, and
an aerobic processit requires oxygen.

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Figure 6.3

O2
CO2

Lungs

O2

O2

CO2

CO2

Cellular
respiration

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Muscle cells

Central Role of Glucose

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EnergyTransformation

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Permission required for reproduction or display.
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AerobicRespiration:AnOverview
A series of enzyme controlled reactions
Oxygen is used to oxidize glucose.
Glucose is oxidized to form carbon dioxide.
Oxygen is reduced to form water.

During the oxidation of glucose

The C-H and O-H bonds will be broken.

The electrons will be transferred to electron carriers,
NAD and FAD.
Glycolysis and Krebs cycle

The electrons will be passed through an electron

transport chain.

The energy from the electrons will be used to pump

protons.
The energy from the diffusion of protons will be used to
make ATP.

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AerobicCellularRespiration:
Overview

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Purpose of glycolysis
ThefirstistogenerateATP.Althoughonly
two ATPs per glucose are made directly
from the reactions of the glycolytic
pathway it also feeds substrates into the
citric acid cycle and oxidative
phosphorylation,wheremostATPismade
The second role is to produce
intermediates
that
act
as
precursors for a number of
biosynthetic
pathways.
Thus
acetyl CoA, for example, is the
precursor for fatty acid synthesis

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Preparatory Phase

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Reaction 1: phosphorylation

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Tissue-specific
isozymes.
Glucokinase-brain, liver,
pancreas; Glucokinase
has a lower affinity for
glucose than the other
hexokinases
Hexokinase-high affinity
towards hexose; present
in muscle

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Hexokinase vs. glucokinase

Reaction 2: isomerization

aldose

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Moves the carbonyl to C2

position; a prerequisite for further
steps

ketose

Reaction 3: phosphorylation

The Phosphofructokinase reaction is the rate-limiting step

of Glycolysis.
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60

low [ATP]

PFK Activity

50
40
30

high [ATP]

20
10
0
0

0.5
1
1.5
[Fructose-6-phosphate] mM

Athigh[ATP],hasloweraffinityfortheothersubstrate,fructose6P.
InhibitionoftheGlycolysisenzymePhosphofructokinasewhen[ATP]
ishighpreventsbreakdownofglucoseinapathwaywhosemainrole
istomakeATP.
ItismoreusefultothecelltostoreglucoseasglycogenwhenATPis
plentiful.

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Reaction 4: cleavage

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Reaction 5: isomerization

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Keeping Track of Carbons

glucose

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Fig 14-2
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Reaction 7: substrate level phosphorylation

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Reaction 8: shift of phosphoryl group

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Reaction 9: dehydration

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Reaction 10: substrate level phosphorylation

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Summary

Energy
investment
Cleavage
Energy
Harvest
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EfGlznwfu9U
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Fate of the products, pyruvate and NADH

Fig143
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Reaction of pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDC) under aerobic

condition

Enters Krebs cycle

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Glycolysis
Thebreakdownofglucoseinto
pyruvicacid
TwoATPmoleculesareused
toenergizeglucose.
Asglucoseismetabolized,
enoughenergyisreleasedto
Make4ATPmolecules
4ATPmade2ATP
used=netproductionof
2ATP
Reduce2NAD+tomake2
NADH

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Occursinthecytoplasm
Anaerobic

Fateoffructose
In muscle and adipose tissue, fructose can be
phosphorylated by hexokinase (which is capable of
phosphorylating both glucose and fructose) to form
fructose6phosphatewhichthenentersglycolysis.
Inliver,thecellscontainmainlyglucokinaseinstead
ofhexokinaseandthisenzymephosphorylatesonly
glucose. Thus in liver, fructose is metabolized
instead by the fructose 1phosphate pathway to
yieldtheglyceraldehyde3phosphate

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TheDetailsofGlycolysis

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AnaerobicCellularRespiration
SomeorganismsdonothavetheenzymesforKrebs
cycleortheelectrontransportsystem.
Someorganismscanmetabolizeglucoseintheabsenceof
oxygen.
Metabolizingglucoseintheabsenceofoxygeniscalled
anaerobicrespiration.
Involvestheincompleteoxidationofglucose
Fermentationisananaerobicpathwaythatusesanorganic
moleculeasthefinalelectronacceptor.

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AnaerobicCellularRespiration
Anaerobicrespirationusuallystartswith
glycolysis.
Glucoseismetabolizedintopyruvicacid.
2ATParemade.

ThefermentationreactionsoxidizeNADH
toregeneratetheNAD+thatisneededin
glycolysis.
Intheprocess,pyruvicacidisreducedtoeither
lacticacidorethanoloranotherorganic
molecule.
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TypesofFermentation

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AlcoholicFermentation
Startswithglycolysis
Glucoseismetabolizedtopyruvic
acid.
Anetof2ATPismade.
Duringalcoholicfermentation
Pyruvicacidisreducedtoform
ethanol.
Carbondioxideisreleased.
Yeastsdothis
Leavenedbread
Sparklingwine

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LacticAcidFermentation
Startswithglycolysis
Glucoseismetabolizedtopyruvicacid.
Anetof2ATPismade.

Duringlacticacidfermentation
Pyruvicacidisreducedtoformlacticacid.
Nocarbondioxideisreleased.

Musclecellshavetheenzymestodothis,butbraincells
donot.
Musclecellscansurvivebriefperiodsofoxygendeprivation,but
braincellscannot.
Lacticacidburnsinmuscles.
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KrebsCycle
Alsoknownasthecitricacid
cycleorthetricarboxylicacid
(TCA)cycle
Thebreakdownofpyruvicacid
Releasedascarbondioxide
Enoughenergyisreleasedas
onepyruvicacidmoleculeis
metabolizedto
Make1ATP
Reduce4NAD+toform4
NADH
Reduce1FADtoform1
FADH2.
Occursinthemitochondrial
matrix

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TheCitricacidcycle
It is called the Krebs cycle or the tricarboxylic and is
the hub of the metabolic system. It accounts for
the majority of carbohydrate, fatty acid and amino
acid oxidation. It also accounts for a majority of the
generation of these compounds and others as well.
3NAD+ + FAD + GDP + Pi + acetyl-CoA
3NADH + FADH + GTP + CoA + 2CO2

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History

By 1930 it was established that the addition of lactate,

acetate succinate, malate, -ketoglutaric acid
(dicarboxylic acids) and citrate and isocitrate
(tricarboxylic acids) when added to muscle mince that
they stimulated oxygen consumption and release of CO 2
1935Albert Szent-Gyorgyi showed that
Succinate

Fumarate

Malate

Oxaloacetate

Carl Martius and Franz Knoop showed

Citrate
succinate
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cis-aconitate
fumarate

isocitrate
malate

ketoglutarate
oxaloacetate

Krebs showed that succinate is formed from

fumarate, malate or oxaloacetate.
This is
interesting since it was shown that the other way
worked as well!!
Pyruvate can form citrate enzymatically
Pyruvate + oxaloacetate

citrate + CO 2

The interconversion rates of the intermediates

was fast enough to support respiration rates.

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The citric acid cycle operates in the mitochondria of

eukaryotes and in the cytosol of prokaryotes.
Succinate dehydrogenase, the only membranebound enzyme in the citric acid cycle, is embedded
in the inner mitochondrial membrane in eukaryotes
and in the plasma membrane in prokaryotes

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Thecitricacidcycleenzymesarefound
inthematrixofthemitochondria
Substrates have to flow across the outer and
inner parts of the mitochondria

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CoAactsasacarrierofacetylgroups

Acetyl-CoA is a high energy compound: The

G' for the hydrolysis of its thioester is -31.5
kJ mol-1 making it greater than the hydrolysis of
ATP

Pyruvate dehydrogenase converts pyruvate

to acetyl-CoA and CO2
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The enzyme requires five coenzymes and

five reactions
Pyruvate + CoA + NAD+
NADH

acetyl-CoA + CO2 +

Pyruvate dehydrogenase is a multi-enzyme complex

containing three enzymes associated together noncovalently and five coenzymes
Since the reaction involves both an oxidation and a loss of
CO2, the process is called oxidative decarboxylation.

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TheDetailsoftheKrebsCycle

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The amphibolic nature of Citric acid cycle: This pathway is utilized for the both
catabolic reactions to generate energy as well as for anabolic reactions to
generate metabolic intermediates for biosynthesis.

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Electrontransportchain
a)

is located in a mitochondrion

b)

includes enzymes integrated in the inner mitochondrial

membrane

c)

belongs among oxidative pathways

d)

needs oxygen (O2) for its function

e)

belongs among oxidoreductases

f)

can transfer either H or electrons

g)

are called Complex I, II, III and IV

)
)
)
)

NADHQreductase(ComplexI)
SuccinateQreductase(ComplexII)
Qcytochromecreductase(ComplexIII)
Cytochromecoxidase(ComplexIV)

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For biological systems, the standard redox potential for a substance (E0) is
measured under standard conditions, at pH 7, and is expressed in volts. In an
oxidationreduction reaction, where electron transfer is occurring, the total
voltage change of the reaction (change in electric potential, E) is the sum of
the voltage changes of the individual oxidationreduction steps.
The standard free energy change of a reaction at pH 7, G0, can be readily
calculated from the change in redox potential E0 of the substrates and
products:
G0 nF E0
where n is the number of electrons transferred, E0 is in volts (V), G0 is in
kilocalories per mole (kcal mol1) and F is a constant called the Faraday (23.06
kcal V1mol1).
Note that a reaction with a positive E0 has a negative G0 (i.e. is
exergonic).
Thus for the reaction:
NADH H 12 O2
NAD H2O
E0 1.14 V
G0 52.6 kcal mol1.
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TheDetailsoftheElectron
TransportSystem

NADH H 12 O2

NAD H2O

oxidationreduction potential
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Oxidative phosphorylation
a) needs proton gradient on the inner
mitochondrial membrane
b) is catalyzed by ATP synthase
c) can be interrupted by uncoupling proteins
(UCP)

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inner
mitochondrial
membrane

ATP synthase

proton-motive force

The figure is found at http://plaza.ufl.edu/tmullins/BCH3023/cell%20respiration.html (December 2006)

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Uncoupling
proteins
(UCP)
= separate
RCH from ATP
synthesis
(the synthesis is
interrupted)

energy from H+
gradient is
released as a
heat
The figure is found at http://departments.oxy.edu/biology/Franck/Bio222/Lectures/March23_lecture_shuttles.htm (December 2006)
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Oxidation of NADH+H+ in the RCH

produces more ATP than oxidation of
FADH2 because
a) higher proton gradien is made by oxidation of
NADH+H+
b) NADH+H+ transfers H to different Complex
of the RCH than FADH2
c) more protons are transported to the
intermembrane space if NADH+H+ is oxidize

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Efficiency of Biochemical engine in Living Systems:

Oxidation of one glucose yields 2840 kJ/mole energy
Energy obtained by biological engine: 32ATP X 30.5 kJ/Mol = 976
kJ/mol
Thus 34% efficiency is obtained if calculations are done using
standard conditions. But if concentrations in the cellular condition are
taken in account, the efficiency is close to 65%.

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Figure 6.11-1

Glycolysis
Glucose

2
Pyruvic
acid

2
ATP
by direct
synthesis

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2
Acetyl
CoA

Citric
Acid
Cycle

Electron
Transport Chain

2
ATP

About
28 ATP

by direct
synthesis

by ATP
synthase

FatRespiration
Fatsarebrokendowninto
Glycerol
Fattyacids
Glycerol
Convertedtoglyceraldehyde3phosphate
Entersglycolysis
Fattyacids
ConvertedtoacetylCoA
EntertheKrebscycle
Eachmoleculeoffatfuelstheformationofmany
moreATPthanglucose.
Thismakesitagoodenergystoragemolecule.

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ProteinRespiration
Proteinsaredigestedintoaminoacids.
Thenaminoacidshavetheaminogroup
removed.
Generatesaketoacid(aceticacid,
pyruvicacid,etc.)
EntertheKrebscycleattheappropriate
place

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TheBottomLine
Carbohydrates,fatsandproteinscanallbeused
forenergy.
GlycolysisandtheKrebscycleallowthese
typesofmoleculestobeinterchanged.
Ifmorecaloriesareconsumedthanused
Theexcessfoodwillbestored.
Oncetheorganismhasalloftheproteinsit
needs
Anditscarbohydratestoresarefull
Theremainderwillbeconvertedtoand
storedasfat.
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Figure 6.12

Food

Carbohydrates

Fats

Sugars Glycerol Fatty acids

Glycolysis

Acetyl
CoA

Proteins

Amino acids

Citric
Acid
Cycle

Electron
Transport Chain

ATP
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