THERMODYN

AMICS 1
Introduction to
Thermodynamics

THERMODYNAMICS
is

that branch of the physical sciences

that treats of the various phenomena of
energy and related properties of matter,
especially of the laws of transformation
of heat into other forms of energy and
vice versa.

FOUNDERS OF
THERMODYNAMICS

Antoine Laurent Lavoisier (1743-1794)

- founder of modern chemistry
-analysis of combustion process
- proposed the name oxygen
Nicholas Sadi Carnot (1796-1832)
- proposed the Carnot cycle
Rudolf J. Clausius (1822-1888)
-introduced the property called entropy
Lord Kelvin (1824-1907)
- developed the thermodynamic temperature scale.
James Prescott Joule (1818-1889)
-established the equivalence of heat and work

Carnot

Kelvin

Clausius

J. Willard Gibbs (1839-1903)

-established the effects of thermodynamics, statistical mechanics, chemistry and mechanics.

BASIC PRINCIPLES, CONCEPTS,

AND DEFINITION

Fluid- is a substance that has the ability to flow and the

tendency to assume the shape of its container.
EX: Fuel (engine), steam (turbine), air (compressor), water
(pump).
Substance- is something that usually made up of molecules;
sometimes atoms may be involved.
Simple substance- is one whose state is defined by two
independently variable intensive thermodynamic properties.
Pure substance- is a substance that has a fixed chemical
composition throughout.

THE SYSTEM

System- is that portion of the universe, an atom, a

galaxy, a certain quantity of matter, or a certain volume
in space, that one wishes to study.
Boundary- it encloses the system. It may be imaginary,
either fixed or moving.
Surrounding/Environment- is the region all about
the system.
Free body- in analytic mechanics is a system in which
the mode of analysis is based on Newtons law of motion.

Closed system- is one in which there is no exchange of matter

with surroundings- mass does not cross the boundaries but energy
may have crossed it.
Open system- is one across whose boundaries there is a flow of
mass and energy.
Isolated system- is one that is completely impervious to its
surroundings-neither mass nor energy cross its boundaries.
Homogeneous- is a quantity of matter that has the same
chemical composition throughout.
Mixture- phase boundaries separate the phases in what, when
taken as a whole.
Property- is any quantity that serves to describe a system.

PROPERTIES AND STATE

Intensive properties- are independent of mass such as

temperature, pressure, and voltage.
Extensive properties- are dependent upon the mass of the
system and are total values such as total volume and total
energy.
Specific properties- are those for a unit mass, and are
extensive by definition such as specific volume.
State- for a pure substance, this refers to the condition as
identified through the properties of the substance and is
defined generally by particular values whenever a certain
mass of the substance in this particular macroscopic state.

SI UNITS

Meter is the unit of length and is equal to 1,650,763.73 wavelengths in vacuum of the radiation
corresponding to the transition between the levels 2p10 and 5d5 of the krypton 86 atom.
Kilogram is the unit of mass and is equal to the mass of the international prototype of the
kilogram, is the only base unit with a prefix.
Second is the unit of time and is the duration of 9,192, 631, 770 periods of the radiation
corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the cesium 133
atom.
Ampere- is the unit of electric current and is that constant current which, if we maintained in a two
straight parallel conductors of infinite length, of negligible circular cross- section, and placed one
meter apart in vacuum, would produce between these conductors a force equal to 2 x 10-7 Newton per
meter length.
Kelvin- is the unit of thermodynamic temperature and is the fraction 1/273.16 of the triple point of
water.
Mole- is the unit of substance and is theamount of substance of a system which contains as many
elementary entities as there are in atoms 0.012 kg of carbon C-12.
Candela- is the unit of luminous intensity, in the perpendicular direction, of a surface of 1/600,000
m2 of a black body at the temperature of freezing platinum under a pressure 101 325 N/m2.

BASIC PROPERTIES

Mass in a body, it is the absolute quantity of matter

in it, an unchanging quantity for the particular mass
when the speed of the mass to be is small compared to
the speed of light.
Conversion units for Mass
1 kg
= 2.205 lbs
1 slug
= 14. 594 kg
= 32.174 lbm
1 metric ton = 1000 kg
1 tonne
= 2000 lbs
1 kip
= 1000 lbs

Weight- is the product of mass and the local

acceleration.
W=
where:
m mass in kg or lbs
g = local acceleration of the body.
k = constant for conversion, kg m/s2/1N

Conversion Units of Weights

1 kgf = 9.80665 N
1 lbf = 4.4482 N
= 444 820 dynes
1N = 105 dynes
1 gmf = 980. 665 dynes

Density- is the mass per unit volume of a substance.

=

Specific volume- is the reciprocal of density of a substance.

=

Specific weight is the weight per unit volume of the

substance.
=

Pressure is the force per unit area.

P =

Fluid pressure is the pressure generated by a column of

fluid.
Pf =gh

Absolute pressure is gage pressure plus the local atmospheric

pressure.
Vacuum Pressure- a negative gage pressure.
Conversions Units of Pressure
1 atm = 101 325 Pa
= 14.7 psi
= 29.92 in Hg
= 760 mmHg
= 1.033 kg/cm2
= 1.01325 bar
Manometer is a device that used to measure fluid pressures.
Archimedes Principle- states that when an object immersed in a
liquid, the liquid exerts an equivalent opposing force called buoyant
force, which is usually equal to the weight of the object.

Thermal equilibrium- Let two bodies be isolated

from the surroundings but placed in contact with each
other, if one is hotter than the other, the hotter body
will become cooler and the cooler body will become
hotter; both bodies will undergo change until all
properties (e.g., pressure) of the bodies cease to
change.
Ice point- exists when ice and water are in
equilibrium at a pressure of 101 kPa.
Steam point- exists when liquid water and its vapor
are in a state of equilibrium at a pressure of 101 kPa.

THERMODYN
AMICS 1
Laws of
Thermodynamics

ZEROTH LAW
states

when two bodies, isolated from

other environment are in thermal
equilibrium with a third body, the two
are in thermal equilibrium with a third
body, the two are in thermal equilibrium
with each other.

1ST LAW OF
THERMODYNAMICS
known as Conservation of energy states
that the energy cannot be created nor destroyed.

Also

The

First Law of Thermodynamics is a balance of

the various forms of energy as they pertain to the
specified thermodynamic system (control volume)
being studied.

Energy

can neither be created nor destroyed, only

altered in form.

2 LAW OF
THERMODYNAMICS

Second Law of Thermodynamics is general principle which

places constrains upon the direction of heat transfer and
the attainable efficiencies of heat engine. It can be stated
in two ways:

Clausius statement applied to Heat Pump-states

that It is impossible to construct a heat pump that
operates without an input work
Kelvin-Plank statement applied to Heat Enginestates that It is impossible to construct a heat engine
which operates a cycle and receives a given amount of heat
from a higher temperature body and does an equal
amount of work.

3RD LAW OF
THERMODYNAMICS
States

that the total entropy of pure

substances approaches zero the absolute
thermodynamic temperature approaches
zero.

THERMODYN
AMICS 1
1st Laws of
Thermodynamics

FIRST LAW OF
THERMODYNAMICS

Conservation of energy states that the

energy cannot be created nor destroyed.

HEAT, Q

Form or amount of heat transferable from one body to another.

Sensible Heat, Qs- heat that causes change in temperature

without change in phase.
Qs = mCt , Cp=specific heat capacity @ pressure constant
Cv= specific heat capacity @ volume constant
Latent Heat, Ql- heat that causes change in phase without
change in temperature.
Ql = mL,
Lf=latent heat of fussion
Lv=latent heat of vaporization

ENERGY

Capacity to produce an effect or simply

capacity to do work.

Conversion of Units
1 BTU
= 1055 Joules = 1.005 kJ
= 252 calories = 0.252 kCal
= 778.16 ft-lb
= 1.055 x 1011 erg

UNITS OF ENERGY
1. BTU (British Thermal Unit)- amount of heat
needed to change the temperature of 1 lb of
water by 1 F from 60 F to 61 F.
2. Calorie- amount of heat needed to change the
temperature of 1 g of water by 1 C from 15.6 C
to 16.6 C.
3. Joule- represent to mechanical equivalent of
heat, SI unit of heat and energy.
4. ft-lb equivalent unit of heat in English unit.

TYPES OF ENERGY

Potential energy is the energy developed due

to elevation from a certain datum.
PE

Kinetic energy is the energy due to motion.

KE

= mgz

= mv2

Internal energy energies that appear in

several complex forms or simply the total energy
stored within a system.
U

= mCvt

TYPES OF ENERGY

Enthalpy- is the sum of all the energies in a system

H

= mCpt

WORK
- is the transitional energy (not stored in a moving

substance) crossing the boundaries of a system that

could conceivably produce the one and the only
effect of raising a weight.

TYPES OF WORK

Non Flow Work, Wn work due to internal effect

brought by the change in volume.
Wn

= PdV

Steady Flow Work, Ws work due to internal

effect brought by the change in pressure.
Ws

= VdP

Shaft work- the energy required to turn a shaft again st

resistance.
Flow work is a special form of that is significant for the
moving stream or is the work done in pushing a fluid
across a boundary, usually into or out of the system.

POWER

Is the amount of energy dissipated per unit time

or work over time.
P = E/t = W/t

Units of Power
1 HP
= 746 Watts = 0.746 kW
= 550 ft-lb/s
= 33,000 ft-lb/min

ENTHROPY

Is the measure of the degree of randomness of

the arrangement of molecules of the substance.
S = Q/T , where: S = enthropy, Q= heat, T= temp.

SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY

Is the thermal property that indicates the ability

of material to absorb or reject heat.
Cp = specific heat capacity @ constant pressure
Cv = specific heat capacity @ constant volume

SPECIFIC GAS CONSTANT, R

Ratio of the universal gas constant & the molecular
weight of substance.
= universal gas constant = 8.3143 kJ/kmol-K
R= / MW , MW= molecular weight
k= Cp/Cv, k= specific gas constant
R = Cp Cv

Constant of Air
Cp= 1.0062 kJ/kg-K = 0.24 Btu/lbm-R
Cv= 0.71867 kJ/kg-K = 0.1714 Btu/lbm-R
R= 0.287 kJ/kg-K
= 53.34 ft-lbf/lbm-R

GENERAL FORMULA
Closed System
Q= U + Wn

Open System
Q= H + KE + PE + Ws
Q= H + Ws

H = U + PV

Constant of Water

Cp= Cv = 4.187 kJ/kg-K

= 1 BTU/lbm-R

Lv

Lf

= 2257 kJ/kg

= 970 BTU/lb

= 144 Btu/lb

= 335 kJ/kg

SAMPLE PROBLEM
1.

2.

3.

4.

How much power is there in the kinetic energy of the

atmosphere (density = 1.217 kg/m) at 56 kph wind velocity?
Consider the section that passes through a 3 m in diameter
circular area normal to the velocity.
Calculate the heat transferred to 2.25 kg of iron to raise its
temperature from 20 C to 240 C taking the specific heat of
the iron as 0.46 kJ/kg-K .
Determine the average Cp value in kJ/kg-K of a gas if 522 kJ
of heat is necessary to raise the temperature from 300 K to
800 K making the pressure constant.
A steam turbine receives 1,630 kg of steam per hour at 340
m/s and 3,550 kJ/kg enthalpy. The steam leaves at 259 m/s
and 3,020 kJ/kg. which of the following most nearly equals to
the power output?

SEATWORK
1.

Find the change in internal energy of 5 lb of oxygen gas

when the temperature changes from 100 F to 120 F.
Use Cv = 0.157 Btu/lb-R.

2.

What is the approximate value of temperature of water

having enthalpy of 208 Btu/lbm.

3.

A perfect gas has a value of R= 58.8 ft-lb/lb-R and

k=1.26 . If 20 Btu are added to 10 lbs of the gas at
constant volume when the initial temperature is 90 F,
find the final temperature.