Chapter 8

Personality

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Personality
Personalityistheparticularcombination
ofemotional,attitudinal,andbehavioralresponsepatternsof
anindividual.
Arelativelystablesetofcharacteristicsthatinfluencesan
individualsbehavior.

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Significance Personality
1. Matchingjobsandindividuals
2. Designingmotivationsystem
3. DesigningControlSystem

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Determinants of Personality

Cultural Factors
Biological Factors

Family & Social Factors

Situational Factors

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1.Biological Factors Biologicalcontributionsto

personalitycanbedividedintothreemajorcategories:

Hereditary

Brain

PhysicalFeatures

2.Cultural Factors Culturemaybedefinedasthe

sumtotaloftheknowledge,beliefs,valuescustoms,habits
acquiredbythepeoplefromsociety.
Theculturehighlydetermineswhatapersonisandwhataperson
willlearn.
Theculturewithinwhichapersonisbroughtupisveryimportant
determinantsofbehaviorofaperson.
Itgenerallydeterminesattitudetowardsindependence,
aggression,competition,co-operation.

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3.Family and Social Factors: Inorderto

understandtheeffectsofafamilyonindividualspersonality,
wehavetounderstandthesocializationandidentification
process.

Socialization Process: Thecontributionoffamilyand

social group in combination with the culture is known as
socialization . Socialization initially starts with the contact
with mother and later on the other members of the family
andthesocialgroupplaysinfluentialroleintheshapingof
anindividualspersonality.

Identification Process: identification starts when a

personbeginstoidentifyhimselfwithsomeothermembers
ofthefamily.Normallychildtriesimitatecertainactionsof
theparents.

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Situational factors :
Anindividualspersonalitymaychangeindifferent
situations
Thedemandsofdifferentsituationsmaycallfordifferent
aspectsofonespersonality.

Other Factors :
Temperament:isthedegreetowhichoneresponds
emotionally.
Interest
Character: primarilymeanshonesty
Motive

Personality Types

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TYPE A
Type A individual as ambitious, rigidlyorganized,
highlystatusconscious, are sensitive, truthful, impatient,
always try to help others, take on more than they can
handle, want other people to get to the point,proactive,
andobsessedwithtimemanagement.
PeoplewithTypeApersonalitiesareoftenhigh-achieving
"workaholics" who multi-task, push themselves with
deadlines,andhatedelays.

Type B

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Type B individuals as a contrast to those with Type A

personalities.
People with Type B personality by definition generally live
atalowerstresslevelandtypicallyworksteadily,enjoying
achievementbutnotbecomingstressedwhentheydonot
achieve.
Whenfacedwithcompetition,theydonotmindlosingand
eitherenjoythegameorbackdown.Theymaybecreative
andenjoyexploringideasandconcepts.
Theyareoftenreflective,thinkingabouttheouterandinner
worlds.

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Major Personality Attributes Influencing OB

Certainpersonalityattributesaboveandbeyondpersonality
typedohaveinfluencesonjobperformanceandbehavior.

Self Monitoring:istheextenttowhichpeopletryto
controlthewaytheypresentthemselvestoothers.

Self Esteem: istheextenttowhichpeoplehavepridein

themselvesandtheircapabilities.Individualswithhighself
esteemthinktheyaregenerallycapableandworthypeople
whocandealwithmostsituations.Individualswithlowself
esteemquestiontheirselfworth,doubttheircapabilitiesand
areapprehensiveabouttheirtosucceedindifferent
endeavors.

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Need Patterns: Individualswithahighneedfor

achievementhaveaspecificationsinwhichtheypersonally
desiretoperformchallengingtaskswelltomeettheirown
personalstandardsforexcellence.
Theyliketobeinsetcleargoalsforthemselvesarewillingto
takepersonalresponsibilityforoutcomes,andliketoreceive
performancefeedback.
Individualswithhighneedforaffiliationareespecially
concernedaboutestablishingandmaintaininggoodrelations
withotherpeople.Theynotonlywanttobelikedbyothersbut
alsowanteveryonetogetalongwitheveryonetogetalong
witheveryoneelse.

 Locus of Control

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Therearetwotypesofpeopleinthiscategory:thosewithan
internalandthosewithanexternallocusofcontrol.
Internalindividualsbelievethattheyareinchargeoftheirown
lifeanditsoutcomes;theyareincontrolofevents.
Externalindividualsthinkthattheyhavenocontrolovertheir
lives.Theybelievethatluck,chance,orfatecontrolsthe
outcomeandnoamountofextraeffortontheirpartwillhave
anyeffect.
Externallocusofcontroloftenindicatesalackofconfidenceor
negativecoreselfevaluation.

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Topics to Explore
1. TraitTheories
2. PsychoanalyticTheory
3. SocialCognitiveTheories
4. HumanisticTheories

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Types of Personality Theories

Trait Theories:Attempttolearnwhattraitsmakeuppersonality
andhowtheyrelatetoactualbehavior
Psychodynamic Theories:Focusontheinnerworkingsof
personality,especiallyinternalconflictsandstruggles
Humanistic Theories:Focusonprivate,subjectiveexperience
andpersonalgrowth
Social-Cognitive Theories:Attributedifferenceinpersonalityto
socialization,expectations,andmentalprocesses

Part 1
Trait Theories

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Jungs Theory of Two Types

Carl Jung,Swisspsychiatrist
whowasaFreudiandisciple,
believedthatweareoneoftwo
personalitytypes:

Introvert:Shy,self-centered
personwhoseattentionis
focusedinward

Extrovert:Bold,outgoing
personwhoseattentionis
directedoutward

Carl Jung

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Raymond Cattell

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Cattell: Source & Surface Traits

Raymond Cattell:fromDevon,England,believedthatthere
weretwobasiccategoriesoftraits:
Surface Traits:Featuresthatmakeupthevisibleareas
ofpersonality
Source Traits:Underlyingcharacteristicsofa
personality
Cattellalsoconstructedthe16PF,apersonalitytestidentifying
16personalityfactors(sourcetraits).

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Cattell: The Big Five

Cattellbelievedthatfivefactorswere
mostimportant:
Openness
Conscientiousness
Extraversion
Agreeable
Neuroticism

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Graphic: The Big Five

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Openness to experience:
(inventive/curious vs. consistent/cautious).
Appreciation for art, emotion, adventure, unusual
ideas, curiosity, and variety of experience.
Openness reflects the degree of intellectual curiosity,
creativity and a preference for novelty and variety a
person has.
It is also described as the extent to which a person is
imaginative or independent, and depicts a personal
preference for a variety of activities over a strict
routine.

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Conscientiousness:
(efficient/organized vs. easygoing/careless).
A tendency to show self-discipline, act dutifully, and
aim for achievement; planned rather than
spontaneous behavior; organized, and dependable.
Extraversion:
(outgoing/energetic vs. solitary/reserved).
Energy,
positive emotions, assertiveness, sociability and the
tendency to seek stimulation in the company of
others, and talkativeness.

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Agreeableness:
(friendly/compassionate vs. analytical/detached).
A tendency to be compassionate and cooperative
rather than suspicious towards others.
It is also a measure of one's trusting and helpful
nature, and whether a person is generally well
tempered or not.
Neuroticism: (sensitive/nervous vs. secure/confident).
The tendency to experience unpleasant emotions
easily, such as anger, anxiety, depression.
Neuroticism also refers to the degree of emotional
stability and impulse control and is sometimes referred
to by its low pole, "emotional stability".

Part 2
Psychoanalytic Theory

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Freuds Psychoanalytic Theory

SigmundFreud:thoughthis
patientsproblemsweremore
emotionalthanphysical.

Psychoanalyticaltheoryof
personalityhasbeenbased
primarilyonhisconceptof
unconsciousnatureof
personality.

Thisframeworkincludesthree
conflictingpsychoanalytical
conceptstheId,theEGOand
theSUPER-EGO.

The Id, Ego, and Superego

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ID:
Is the foundation of unconscious behavior and it seeks
immediate satisfaction of needs . It has animalistic
instinctsofaggression,poweranddomination.
AsapersonmaturehelearnstocontroltheID.
WorksonPleasure Principle:Wishestohaveitsdesires
(pleasurable) satisfied NOW, without waiting and
regardlessoftheconsequences

EGO:

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ItisassociatedwithrealitiesofLife.
Ittheconsciousandlogicalpart
ItkeepscheckontheIDsothatthepleasures
unconsciouslydemandedbyhumanbeingsare
grantedatanappropriatetimeandplaceandin
appropriatemanners.
WorksonReality Principle:Delaysactionuntilit
ispracticaland/orappropriate

Superego

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ItisthehigherlevelforcetorestraintheIDandisdescribedas
theconsciousaperson.
Itrepresentsthenormsoftheindividual,familyandsocietyandis
ethicalconstraintonthebehavior.
Theconsciousofapersoniscontinuouslytellinghimwhatisright
andwhatiswrong.
Itisdevelopedbytheculturalvaluesinculcatedinthepersonby
thenormsofthesociety.
Superegocomesfromourparentsorcaregivers;guiltcomesfrom
thesuperego

Two parts
- Conscience: Reflects actions for which a person has been
punished(e.g.,whatweshouldntdoorbe)
-Ego Ideal:Second part ofthesuperego; reflectsbehaviorones
parentsapprovedoforrewarded(e.g.,whatweshoulddoorbe)

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Levels of Awareness
Conscious:Everythingyouareawareofatagivenmoment
Preconscious:Materialthatcaneasilybebroughtinto
awareness
Unconscious:Holdsrepressedmemoriesandemotionsand
theidsinstinctualdrives

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Graphic: Levels of Awareness

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Cause of Anxiety
Egoisalwayscaughtinthemiddleofbattlesbetweensuperegos
desiresformoralbehaviorandtheidsdesiresforimmediate
gratification
Neurotic Anxiety:Causedbyidimpulsesthattheegocan
barelycontrol
Moral Anxiety:Comesfromthreatsofpunishmentfromthe
superego
Defense mechanism: aprocessusedbytheegotodistort
realityandprotectapersonfromanxiety

Eriksons Eight Stages of

Psychosocial

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Hehadaviewthatmore
importanceshouldbegiven
tosocialfactors.

Hedescribed8
developmentalstagesaswe
growfromchildhoodto
adulthood.

The8developmentstages,
theproblemsencounteredat
eachstageandtheimpactof
thesestagesonthe
organizationalbehaviorare
discussedbelow.

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Erikson Stages
Stage1:Infancy/TrustVsMistrust
Stage2:EarlyChildhoodAutonomyVsShameandDoubt
Stage3:PlayAge/InitiativeVsGuilt
Stage4:SchoolAge/IndustryVsInferiority.
Stage5:Adolescence/IdentityVsRoleDiffusion.
Stage6:EarlyAdulthood/IntimacyVsIsolation.
Stage7:Adulthood/GenerativelyVsStagnation.
Stage8:MatureAdulthood/EgoIntegrityVsDespair.

Stage 1: Infancy/ Trust Vs

Mistrust

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Feeling

If the parents care for the infant in a very

affectionate way , the child learns to trust
others.

Lack of love and affection on the part of the

parentsresultsinmistrust.

Intheearlystageoforganizationallifewhena
person knows very little about the job and is
dependent on others for guidance , he
developsthefeelingoftrustormistrusttowards
the other in the organization depending upon
howtheotherpeoplerespondtohisneedand
helphimtofindhisplaceinthesystem.

of

trust

Vs

Mistrust

are
developed in this stage and these feelings
dependupononthebehavioroftheparents

Stage 2 - Early Childhood Autonomy

Vs
Shame and Doubt
A. Ages 2-3
Child begins to assert
independence
and
experiences a great need to
operateonhisown.
If the child is allowed to
control those aspects of life
that the child is capable of
controlling , a sense of
autonomywilldevelop.
If he encounters constant
disapproval by parents or
elders a sense of self doubt
and shame is likely to
develop.

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Stage 2: Contd.

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Like wise , In an organization life , a person wants to

operate independently after the initial training. If he is
allowedtodoso,asenseofautonomywilldevelop.But
if he is criticized and disapproved by the others for
making mistakes, he will tend to have self doubts about
hiscompetencyandexperienceasenseofshamefornot
dongthethingsright.

Stage 3 Play Age / Initiative Vs

Guilt

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A. 4-5 years
Iftheparentsandtheothermembers
ofthefamilyencouragethechildto
experimentandtoachievereasonable
goalshewilldevelopasenseof
initiative.
In the same way organizational
members try to use their creative and
acquired talents as they settle down in
theirjobs.
But if things go wrong , other people
makehimfeelguiltythathehaswasted
theresourcesoftheorganization.

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Stage 4 School Age / Industry Vs Inferiority

A.

6 to 11 years

B.

Developmental Tasks

learnphysicalskillsforsports,games,
etc.

intellectually-learntoread,write,domath
learnrightfromwrong

developattitudestowardsthemselves
andothers.

developsenseofindustry-makethings-
cookies,models,etc.

likewiseinanorganizationallifewetrytowork
hard to make a position for ourselves if
we are not successful in our efforts we
willdevelopasenseofinferiorityandlow
esteemotherwisewewilldevelopasense
ofindustry.

Stage 5 Adolescence/ Identity Vs

Role Diffusion

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A.

Ages913&14-17

In this age he to gain a sense of

identity rather than to become
confusedaboutwhoheis.

In the organizational set up every

employee
has
to
make
contributions to the institution and
establish himself as a high
performing member if he does it ,
he is identified in the eyes of the
management

and if he fails to establish himself

hebecomesjustanotheremployee
intheeyesofmanagementwhose
identityisdiffused.

G. Developmental Tasks

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1. Form mature relationships

2. achieve a masculine or feminine social role
3. accept ones physique and use ones body effectively
4. Achieve emotional independence from parents and
other adults
5. prepare for marriage and family life
6. prepare for career
7. acquire personal standards
8. develop social intelligence-aware of human needshelping others
9. develop conceptual and problem-solving skills

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VI Stage 6- Young Adulthood

Age 20 to early 30s- can start as young as 17.
Financiallyindependentfromparents
Candealwitheverydaylifetrialswithmaturity
Atpeakofphysicalabilities-strength,
quickness,alertness
Cruciallifedecisionsmade-marriage,career,
Children

Intheorganizationallifealsopeoplemaybe
desiredtodevelopclosecontactswithothers
whoaresignificantandimportantinthesystem
.

Thosewhocandoithaveasenseof
intimacy.Forthosewhofinditdifficulttodoit
experienceasenseofisolationinthesystem

Stage 7- Middle Adulthood/ Generatively Vs

Stagnation

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A.

35-65years

B.

Startthinkingintermsofwhattodowiththerestoftheirlives.

C.

Feelingthattimeisrunningout

D.

Starttofacedeathofparents

E.

Mid-lifecrisiscommon-divorce,careerchange,remarriage

1.somehavenotacceptedmiddleage-canleadtoproblemsadjustingTheir
children may be going through adolescence, during this time which can
addtoconflict.
2.

Stage 7- Contd

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Likewiseintheorganizationasapersonreaches
hismidcareerthereisanexpectationandneedto
mentorothersinthesystemandhelpthemto
developandgrowintheorganizationiftheperson
doesnotdoiteffectivelyhesensesafeelingof
stagnationinthesystem.

Stage 8- Late Adulthood/ Ego Integrity Vs

Despair

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A.

65andolder

B.

Retirementcommon.

C.

Seniorcitizenofthecountry

D.

Guidetheyoungergeneration.

E.

MeasuresofAge

1.Chronological-Howoldyou
actuallyare
2.Biological-howwellyourbody
isholdingup
influencedbydiet,exercise,
lifestyle, heredity
3.Social-apersonslifestyle
G.Grandchildrenbecomeimportant

9. Death- Stages of Acceptance

Inthisstagea
conflictis
experiencedbyan
individualsasthe
socialandbiological
rolesgetdiminished
duetotheageing
processandthey
experienceasense
ofuselessness.

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1. Denial- Nonotme-cantacceptnewsofadeathortheirown
imminentdeath.
2. Anger- Whyme?Stage-resentment,sometimesleadstoisolation,
rejection
3. Bargaining- beginstoacceptreality,butbargainsformoretimeby
praying,othermedicaltreatments,etc.
4. Depression-timeofgrievingforwhatthepatienthasalreadylostand
willlose.Worriesaboutfamily,money,fellssenseofgreatloss.Encouragehimorhertogrieve
5. Acceptance Allowsforactionandfacingrealityinaconstructiveway.
Closureisimportant.Notahappystage,butnot

Inanorganization,apersoncanhaveafeelingof
happinessafterretirementbylookingathisstockof
accomplishmentorhecanleavetheorganizationwith
asenseofpurposelessnessanddespair.

Evaluation of
Psychoanalytic Theory

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Freudoveremphasizedsexualityandplacedlittleemphasis
onotheraspectsofthechildsexperience.
Freudstheoryislargelyuntestable.Particularly,the
conceptoftheunconsciousisunprovable.
AccordingtoFreud,theonlywaythatpeoplein
psychologicaldistresscangetreliefistoundergolength
therapy,toidentifyunresolvedconflictsfrominfancyand
childhood.
Freudsviewofpeopleisoverlynegativeandpessimistic.

Part 3
Social-Cognitive Theories

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Self Theory

Ifwestopthinkingaboutotherpeoplesbehavior,webecome
consciousofourfeelings,attitudeandperhapsoffeelingor
responsibilityofouractionsinrelationtooneselfandothers.

Thisphenomenonhasleadtoselftheory.

According Morgan Self Theory has 2 distinct set of meanings

1. Peoples attitude about themselves their trait and abilities, the
impact they could make on others , their plus and minus
points .This includes what may be stated as Self Concept or
Self Image : relates definitely to ones attitude , feelings ,
perceptionsandevaluationofself.
2. The other relates to psychological process through which an
individualthinks,remembers,perceives,managesandplans.

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Thereare4factorsofselfConcept:

Self Image : isthewayoneseesoneself.

Ideal Self: denotesthewayonewouldliketobe
Looking Glass Self:itisthewayonethinkspeople
perceiveabouthimandthewaypeopleactuallyseehim.

Real Self : iswhatonereallyis.

Evaluation of
Social-Cognitive Theories

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Social-cognitivetheoriestendtobeoverly-mechanical.
Overemphasizesenvironmentalinfluences;giveslittleorno
considerationtothepossibilityofinnatepersonality
differencesortheeffectsofgenetics.
Doesnotrecognizeinternalhumanqualitiessuchashope,
aspiration,love,self-sacrifice

Part 4
Humanistic Theories

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Maslows Theory
AbrahamMaslowisconsideredfatherofthehumanistic
movement.Heobservedthelivesof(purportedly)healthyand
creativepeopletodevelopistheory.
Hierarchy of needs:themotivationalcomponentofMaslows
theory,inwhichourinnateneeds,whichmotivateouractions,
arehierarchicallyarranged.
Self-actualization:thefullestrealizationofapersons
potential

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Abraham Maslow

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Graphic: Hierarchy of Needs

Characteristics of
Self-Actualized People

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Efficientperceptionsofreality
Comfortableacceptanceofself,others,andnature
Spontaneity
TaskCentering
Autonomy
Continuedfreshnessofappreciation
Fellowshipwithhumanity
Profoundinterpersonalrelationships
Comfortwithsolitude
Non-hostilesenseofhumor
Peakexperiences

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Some Self-Actualized People

AlbertEinstein

AbrahamLincoln

RalphWaldoEmerson

EleanorRoosevelt

WilliamJames

AlbertSchweitzer

ThomasJefferson

MahatmaGandhi