Carbohydrate

Why do we need carbohydrate?

To give us energy

Cx(H2O)y
Hydrated carbon!

Carbohydrates (glycans) have the following

basic composition:
(CH2O)n

I
or H - C - OH
I

Carbohydrates
Many carbohydrates are soluble in water.
The usual chemical test for the simpler
carbohydrates is heating with Benedicts
solution.
The formula for a carbohydrate is
(CH2O)n
The n represents the number of times the
CH2O unite is repeated.

 They are of major importance to both plants and

animals. More that half of all organic carbon
atoms in the world are in carbohydrate
molecules.
They are made by chlorophyll-containing plants
in the process
of O
photosynthesis.
6 CO
+
6
H
C6H12O6 + 6 O2
2
2
Our bodies use carbohydrates for energy and
also as a source of carbon atoms for the
synthesis of many other compounds.

 Polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones, or compounds that

yield polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones on hydrolysis.
Carbohydrates Contain the Elements:
--- Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen
They Are Split Into Three Groups Known As:
Monosaccharides (Monomers) - simple sugars with
multiple OH groups. Based on number of carbons (3, 4,
5, 6), a monosaccharide is a triose, tetrose, pentose or
hexose.
Disaccharides (Dimers) - 2 monosaccharides
covalently linked.
Oligosaccharides - a few monosaccharides covalently
linked.
Polysaccharides (Polymers) - polymers consisting of
chains of monosaccharide or disaccharide units.

CONCEPTS OF ISOMERS
Two or more different compounds which contain the
same number and types of atoms and the same
molecular weights.

Projection formula (spatial arrangement to represent 3dimensional structure):

D vs L Designation
D & L designations
are based on the
configuration about
the single
asymmetric C in
glyceraldehyde.
The lower
representations are
Fischer Projections.

CHO

CHO
H

OH

HO

L-glyceraldehyde

CHO
H

OH

CH2OH

D-glyceraldehyde

CH2OH

CH2OH

D-glyceraldehyde

CHO
HO

CH2OH

L-glyceraldehyde

Sugar Nomenclature
For sugars with more
than one chiral center,
D or L refers to the
asymmetric C farthest
from the aldehyde or
keto group.
Most naturally occurring
sugars are D isomers.

C
H C OH
HO C H
H C OH
H C OH
CH2OH
D-glucose

C
HO C H
H C OH
HO C H
HO C H
CH2OH
L-glucose

D & L sugars are mirror

images of one another.
They have the same
name, e.g., D-glucose
& L-glucose.
Other stereoisomers
have unique names,
e.g., glucose, mannose,
galactose, etc.

C
H C OH
HO C H
H C OH
H C OH
CH2OH
D-glucose

C
HO C H
H C OH
HO C H
HO C H
CH2OH
L-glucose

The number of stereoisomers is 2n, where n is the

number of asymmetric centers.
The 6-C aldoses have 4 asymmetric centers. Thus there
are 16 stereoisomers (8 D-sugars and 8 L-sugars).

Hemiacetal & hemiketal formation

An aldehyde can
react with an
alcohol to form
a hemiacetal.
A ketone can
react with an
alcohol to form
a hemiketal.

H
C

H
O

R'

OH

R'

OH

aldehyde

alcohol

hemiacetal

R
C

R
O

"R

OH

R'

ketone

"R

C
R'

alcohol

hemiketal

OH

Cyclic Structure of Monosaccharides

Hemiacetal Formation

anomer

anomer

The specific rotation of pure -D-glucose or -D-glucose

changes over time to reach an equilibrium (mutarotation)

Closing the Ring

Pentoses and
hexoses can cyclize
as the ketone or
aldehyde reacts
with a distal OH.
Glucose forms an
intra-molecular
hemiacetal, as the
C1 aldehyde &
C5 OH react, to
form a 6-member
pyranose ring,
named after pyran.

H
HO
H
H

2
3
4
5
6

CHO
C

OH

OH (linear form)

OH

D-glucose

CH2OH
6 CH2OH

6 CH2OH
5

H
4

OH

H
OH
3

OH

-D-glucose

OH

H
4

OH

H
OH
3

OH

OH

-D-glucose

These representations of the cyclic sugars are called

Haworth projections.

On the same
side as
attacking OH, is
-anomer!

On the opposite
side as
attacking OH, is
-anomer!

Intramolecular hemiacetal formation results in two C(1)

stereoisomers called anomers.

Ring Forms (Glucose)

These are all Glucose

Memorize this structure

Disaccharide Synthesis

The reactions, the names of the sugars, and

whether they are mono- or disaccharides is what
you should know (also, Glycosidic linkage)

Disaccharides:
Maltose, a cleavage
product of starch
(e.g., amylose), is a
disaccharide with an
(1 4) glycosidic
link between C1 - C4
OH of 2 glucoses.
It is the anomer
(C1 O points down).

6 CH2OH

6 CH2OH

H
4

H
OH

OH

H
1

OH

OH

H
OH

H
1

OH

maltose

OH

6 CH2OH

H
OH

6 CH2OH

H
2

OH

H
O

cellobiose

H
OH

OH
1

OH

Cellobiose, a product of cellulose breakdown, is the

otherwise equivalent anomer (O on C1 points up).
The (1 4) glycosidic linkage is represented as a zig-zag,
but one glucose is actually flipped over relative to the other.

Other disaccharides include:

Sucrose, common table sugar, has a glycosidic bond
linking the anomeric hydroxyls of glucose & fructose.
Because the configuration at the anomeric C of glucose
is (O points down from ring), the linkage is (12).
The full name of sucrose is -D-glucopyranosyl-(12)-D-fructopyranose.)
Lactose, milk sugar, is composed of galactose &
glucose, with (14) linkage from the anomeric OH of
galactose. Its full name is -D-galactopyranosyl-(1 4)-D-glucopyranose

CH2OH
H

O
H
OH

OH
H

OH

6CH OH
2
5
O

4 OH

H 1

H
O

O
H
OH

CH2OH

CH2OH

CH2OH
H

H
O

O
H
OH

OH

OH

OH

H
O

O
H
OH

H
OH

OH

amylose

Polysaccharides:
Plants store glucose as amylose or amylopectin, glucose
polymers collectively called starch.
Glucose storage in polymeric form minimizes osmotic
effects.
Amylose is a glucose polymer with (14) linkages.
The end of the polysaccharide with an anomeric C1 not
involved in a glycosidic bond is called the reducing end.

CH2OH
H

CH2OH
O

H
OH

OH

H
O

OH
CH2OH
H

OH
H

H
OH

OH

CH2OH
O

H
OH

OH

H
O

O
H
OH
H

H
OH

H
O

amylopectin

H
1
O
6 CH2
5
H
OH
3
H

CH2OH
O
H
2
OH

H
1
O

CH2OH
O

H
4 OH
H

H
OH

H
O

O
H
OH

H
OH

OH

Amylopectin is a glucose polymer with mainly (14)

linkages, but it also has branches formed by (16)
linkages. Branches are generally longer than shown above.
The branches produce a compact structure & provide
multiple chain ends at which enzymatic cleavage can occur.

CH2OH
H

CH2OH
O

H
OH

OH

H
O

OH
CH2OH
H

OH
H

H
OH

OH

CH2OH
O

H
OH

OH

H
O

O
H
OH
H

H
OH

H
O

glycogen

H
1
O
6 CH2
5
H
OH
3
H

CH2OH
O
H
2
OH

H
1
O

CH2OH
O

H
4 OH
H

H
OH

H
O

O
H
OH

H
OH

OH

Glycogen, the glucose storage polymer in animals, is

similar in structure to amylopectin.
But glycogen has more (16) branches.
The highly branched structure permits rapid glucose release
from glycogen stores, e.g., in muscle during exercise.
The ability to rapidly mobilize glucose is more essential to
animals than to plants.

Starches
carbon and energy (glucose) storage molecules

more branching

Starch/Glycogen

Cellulose
Cellulose is a
Structural
polysaccharide

Cellulose

Most
organisms
cannot digest
(hydrolyze)
cellulose

Organisms that can digest cellulose include

the microorganisms living the gastrointestinal
tract of many organisms typified especially by
cows and termites and many fungi (i.e., the
things that eat the wood of fallen trees)

Sugar derivatives
CHO

COOH
CH2OH
H

OH

OH

OH

CH2OH

D-ribitol

OH

HO

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

HO

CH2OH

D-gluconic acid

COOH

D-glucuronic acid

sugar alcohol - lacks an aldehyde or ketone; e.g., ribitol.

sugar acid - the aldehyde at C1, or OH at C6, is oxidized
to a carboxylic acid; e.g., gluconic acid, glucuronic acid.

Sugar derivatives
CH2OH

CH2OH
H

O
H
OH

H
OH

OH
H

NH2

-D-glucosamine

O
H
OH

H
O OH

OH
H

CH3

-D-N-acetylglucosamine

amino sugar - an amino group substitutes for a hydroxyl.

An example is glucosamine.
The amino group may be acetylated, as in
N-acetylglucosamine.

O
H3C

NH
R
H

COO

R=
OH

H
OH

HC

OH

HC

OH

CH2OH

N-acetylneuraminate (sialic acid)

N-acetylneuraminate (N-acetylneuraminic acid, also

called sialic acid) is often found as a terminal residue
of oligosaccharide chains of glycoproteins.
Sialic acid imparts negative charge to glycoproteins,
because its carboxyl group tends to dissociate a proton
at physiological pH, as shown here.

TERIMA KASIH

Too much ..
Carbohydrate will be converted
into fat and stored under the
skin leading to weight gain!