MANUFACTURING

PROCESSES AND
THEIR RELATED
DEFECTS

Product Technology
Steel Production
Wrought
Production
Extrusion
Forging
Rolling
Defects Inherent
Processing
Service
Heat Treatment

Casting

Welding

Steel Production
2 Stage Process
Iron ore is reduced into pig iron
assisted by other materials.
Carbon content of Pig Iron is lowered
by reacting with oxygen
The molten metal is then cast into
Ingots or continuously cast
Ingots are rolled into Blooms, Billets
or Slabs

Steel Production
1st Stage
Iron ore is reduced into pig iron
assisted by other materials.
Raw materials Hematite (Fe2O3)
or
Magnetite(Fe3O4)
+
Coke
Limestone
Air

Steel Production
1st Stage
Blast furnace reactions
Fe2O3 + 3CO = 2Fe + 3CO2
Fe2O3 + 3C = 2Fe + 3CO
Lime from limestone combines with
impurities (mainly silica) in the ore to
form fluid slag
SiO2 + 2Cao = 2CaOSiO2

Steel Production

Blast Furnace

Charge
Ore
4000
Limestone 800
Coke 1800
Air
8000
14600

Products
Pig Iron 2000
Slag
1600
Dust
200
Furnace gas 10800
14600

Steel Production
Blast Furnace

Product of Blast Furnace - Pig iron (>3%

carbon)

Steel Production

Pig iron converted to steel by

blowing molten metal with oxygen
or oxygen rich gases
Oxygen reacts with excess carbon
C + 2 O CO2
C + O CO
CO + O CO2

Steel Production

Bessemer
Open hearth process
Basic oxygen process

Steel Production

Basic oxygen process

Solid scrap

Steel Production

Basic oxygen process

Molten Pig Iron

Steel Production

Basic oxygen process

Oxygen
lance

Steel Production

Basic oxygen process

Steel

Steel Production

Molten steel poured into large molds

(ingots)
Ingots are used for further processing
Hot top

Steel Production

Molten steel poured into large molds

(ingots)
Ingots are used for further processing
2 types of mould - Narrow end up, Wide
end up

Steel Production
Metal solidifies from outside inwards
3 types of crystal formed
Chill or fine exui-axed
Columnar
Large equi-axed

Smelting Defects
Primary
Pipes
Shrinkage

pipe/sink

Seconda
ry pipe

Smelting Defects
Non-metallic inclusions

Smelting Defects
Segregation of metals

Steel Production

Alternative to ingots is Continuous

casting
Tundish
Mold forming slab
Water spray
chamber
Rollers

Steel Production

Steel Production
Advantages of Continuous casting
Faster : 300 tons of steel in 45 mins
compared to 12 hours
No piping problems
Cheaper : No ingot molds, handling

Product Technology
Casting

Casting Process
Liquid metal is caused to fill a cavity
and solidify into a useful shape
All materials used in metal
manufacture cast at some time

Casting Process
Stage 1 : A pattern of the finished
item slightly over sized
Stage 2 : Mould constructed from
the pattern
Stage 3 : Liquid metal poured
through the channels to fill
the mould

Pouring
basin

Casting
Riser

Sprue

Core
Runne
r

Casting

Chaplets

Chills

Casting
Casting involves the solidification from liquid to solid
Solidification proceeds from outside to centre
Solidification involves shrinkage

Grain Growth

Casting Methods
Sand casting

Sand Casting

Sand Casting

Sand Casting

Sand Casting

Sand Casting

Sand Casting

Casting Methods
Sand casting
Die casting / Injection moulding

Die Casting
Casting
cavity

Injection
piston

Moving
platen

Die

Fixed platen

Casting Methods
Sand casting
Die casting / Injection moulding
Investment casting / Lost wax
process

Investment Casting
Wax
Pattern

Investment Casting
Coat with
refractory
slurry

Investment Casting

Reinforce with
plaster backing
(Investment)

Investment Casting

Oven dry to liquify or

vaporise pattern and dry
mould

Investment Casting

Pour metal

Investment Casting

Remove investment

Choice of Casting Method

Dimensional
Accuracy
Investment casting
Die casting
Sand casting

Cost
Sand casting
Die casting
Investment casting

Casting Defects
Primary
Shrinkage cavities
Sinks

pipe/sink

Seconda
ry pipe

Casting Defects
Blowholes and
porosity

Crosssectional
changes
/corners

Casting Defects
Inclusions
Scabs
Fins

Casting Defects
Shrinkage

Casting Defects
Scabs

Casting Defects
Scabscasting

part of mould stuck to the

Casting Defects
Fins

Gaps

Casting Defects
Fins-

Fin

excess metal of casting

Casting Defects
Hot tears

The larger section The grain

cools slower than are
the smaller section different
between
the
sections
Hot Tears

Hot Tears

Chills are used for:

1. Directional grain growth
2. Uniform cooling rate

Casting Defects
Segregation

Product Technology
Wrought Production Methods

Wrought Production
Forging
Extrusion
Rolling

Wrought Production
Forging
Metal confined
under pressure to
cause plastic flow

Rolling
Thickness
reduction through
compression

Extrusion
Metal forced
through a die
under a large load

Rolling
Ingots, slabs and billets rolled to produce
long length products with uniform cross
section
PRIMARY ROLLING
PROCESS / COGGING

Two-High Reversing
Mill

Rolling
PRIMARY ROLLING PROCESS
Secondary
piping

Two-High Reversing
Mill

Rolling
SECONDARY ROLLING
PROCESS

Three-High
Reversing Mill

Lamination

Rolling
PRIMARY ROLLING PROCESS
Non-metallic
inclusion

Two-High Reversing
Mill

Rolling
SECONDARY ROLLING
PROCESS

Three-High
Reversing Mill

Stringers

Rolling
PRIMARY ROLLING PROCESS
Segregation
of metals

Two-High Reversing
Mill

Rolling
SECONDARY ROLLING
PROCESS

Three-High
Reversing Mill

Banding

Cold Rolling
Initial rolling hot
Finishing by cold working

Cluster mill

4 High mill

Rolling
Bloom - Square c/s 150x150mm minimum
Slab - Rectangular c/s area greater than 14400
mm2
Billet - Square 50x50 up to 120 x 120mm
Primary rolling- ingot to blooms and slabs
Secondary rolling - blooms and slabs to
plates , sheets etc

Forging
Blacksmith
Hammer

Anvil

Forging
6 basic actions
Upsetting
Swaging
Bending
Welding
Punching
Cutting out

Forging
Blacksmith / Open die forging
Hammer
(Tup)

Anvil

Forging
Pressure forging

Forging
Closed die

Extrusion
High loads used to shape ferrous and
non-ferrous alloys
Items produced are of uniform cross
section
Direct
Indirect
Impact

Direct Extrusion
Die

Bille
t

Ram

Indirect Extrusion
Die

Billet

Extruded
item

Impact Extrusion
Punch
Blank
Die

Extrusion Defects
Oxide films (Extrusion defect)
Surface cracks
Grain structure variation

Impact Extrusion

Wrought Production
Defects

Cracks
Laps
Seams
Stringers
Slugs
Bursts
Laminations

Wrought Production
Defects

Banding
Excessive flash
Lack of fill
Mismatch
Internal cracking
Mechanical marks

Other Wrought Processes

Drawing
Material is reduced or changed in
profile by pulling through a die
Die
Wire or rod

Force

Other Wrought Processes

Drawing
Material is reduced or changed in
profile by pulling through a die
Die
Tube

Mandrel

Force

Product Technology
Welding

A Weld : Definitions
A union between
pieces of metal at
faces rendered
A continuous
plastic or liquid by
defect surrounded
heat,pressure or
by parent
both.
material
BS 499
NASA

Welds
An ideal weld must give a strong bond
between materials with the interfaces
disappearing
To achieve this
Smooth,flat or matching surfaces
Surfaces shall be free from
contaminants
Metals shall be free from impurities
Metals shall have identical crystalline
structures

Welding
A union between pieces of metal at faces
rendered plastic or liquid by heat,pressure
or both.
BS 499
Possible energy sources

Ultrasonics
Electron beam
Friction
Electric resistance
Electric arc

Electric Arc Welding

Electro
de
Power
supply
Work piece
Clamp(Earth)

Electric Arc Welding

Electric discharge produced between cathode
and anode by a potential difference (40 to 60
volts)
Discharge ionises air and produces -ve
electrons and +ve ions
Electrons impact upon anode, ions upon
cathode
Impact of particles converts kinetic energy to
heat (7000o C) and light
Amperage controls number of ions and
electrons, Voltage controls their velocity

Electric Arc Welding

Arc Welding Processes
Manual metal arc
Tungsten Inert Gas
Metal Inert Gas
Submerged Arc
Differences between them
Methods of shielding the arc
Consumable or Non-consumable
electrode
Degree of automation

Zones in Fusion Welds

Fusion Zone

Zones in Fusion Welds

Fusion Zone
Heat Affected Zone

Zones in Fusion Welds

Fusion Zone
Heat Affected Zone
Parent Material or Base Metal

Joint Design
Butt
Weld

Joint Design
Butt
Weld

Lap
Joint

Joint Design
Butt
Weld

Corner
Joint

Lap
Joint

Joint Design
Butt
Weld

Lap
Joint

Corner
Joint

Edge
Weld

Joint Design
Butt
Weld

Lap
Joint

Corner
Joint

Edge
Weld

T Joint

Manual Metal Arc (MMA)

Consumable
electrode

Arc
Evolved gas
shield
Slag

Flux
coating

Core wire

Weld metal
Parent metal

Manual Metal Arc Welding

Shielding provided
by decomposition of
flux covering
Electrode
consumable
Manual process

Welder controls
Arc length
Angle of electrode
Speed of travel
Amperage
settings

Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG)

Gas
nozzle
Filler wire
Nonconsumable
tungsten
electrode
Gas
shield
Weld metal

Arc
Parent metal

Metal Inert Gas (MIG)

Reel
feed

Gas
nozzle
Consumable
electrode(filler
wire)

Gas shield
Weld metal

Arc
Parent metal

Submerged Arc
Reel
feed
Flux
retrieval

Consumabl
e
electrode

Flux feed

Slag
Weld metal
Parent metal

Electroslag
Filler
wire
Water cooled
copper shoes
Molten
flux
Weld metal

Welding Defects
Cracks

4 Crack Types
Solidification cracks
Hydrogen induced
cracks
Lamellar tearing
Reheat cracks

Welding Defects
Cracks
Classified by
Shape
Longitudinal
Transverse
Branched
Chevron

Classified by
Position
HAZ
Centreline
Crater
Fusion zone
Parent metal

Welding Defects
Cracks
Solidification
Occurs during weld solidification
process
Steels with high sulphur content (low
ductility at elevated temperature)
Requires high tensile stress
Occur longitudinally down centre of
weld
eg Crater cracking

Cracks

Welding Defects

Hydrogen Induced
Requires susceptible grain structure, stress and
hydrogen
Hydrogen enters via welding arc
Hydrogen source - atmosphere or contamination
of preparation or electrode
Moisture diffuses out into parent metal on
cooling
Most likely in HAZ

Cracks

Welding Defects

Lamellar Tearing
Step like appearance
Occurs in parent material or HAZ
Only in rolled direction of the parent material
Associated with restrained joints subjected to
through thickness stresses on corners, tees and
fillets
Requires high sulphur or non-metallic inclusions

Cracks

Welding Defects

Re-Heat Cracking
Occurs mainly in HAZ of low alloy steels during
post weld heat treatment or service at elevated
temperatures
Occurs in areas of high stress and existing
defects
Prevented by toe grinding, elimination of poor
profile material selection and controlled post
weld heat treatment

Welding Defects
Incomplete root penetration

Causes
Too large or small a root gap
Arc too long
Wrong polarity
Electrode too large for joint preparation
Incorrect electrode angle
Too fast a speed of travel for current

Welding Defects
Root concavity

Causes
Root gap too large
Insufficient arc energy
Excessive back purge (TIG)

Welding Defects
Lack of fusion

Causes
Contaminated weld preparation
Amperage too low
Amperage too high (welder increases speed
of travel)

Welding Defects
Undercut

Causes
Excessive welding current
Welding speed too high
Incorrect electrode angle
Excessive weave
Electrode too large

Welding Defects
Incompletely Filled Groove

Causes
Insufficient weld metal
deposited
Improper welding technique

Welding Defects
Gas pores / Porosity

Causes
Excessive moisture in flux or
preparation
Contaminated preparation
Low welding current
Arc length too long
Damaged electrode flux

Welding Defects
Inclusions - Slag

Causes
Insufficient cleaning between passes
Contaminated weld preparation
Welding over irregular profile
Incorrect welding speed
Arc length too long

Welding Defects
Inclusions - Tungsten

Causes
Contamination of weld during TIG
welding process

Welding Defects
Burn Through

Causes
Excessive amperage during welding of
root
Excessive root grinding
Improper welding technique

Welding Defects
Arc Strikes

Spatter

Causes
Electrode straying
onto parent metal
Electrode holder with
poor insulation
Poor contact of earth
clamp

Causes
Excessive arc energy
Excessive arc length
Damp electrodes
Arc blow

Steel Metallurgy
Steel- Iron and carbon alloyed with other
elements

Carbon- Strength, hardness, toughness, ductility

Manganese- Strength, hardenability
Silicon - Toughness
Molybdenum- Creep resistance, temper embrittlement
Chromium- Hardness, wear resistance, corrosion
Nickel - Ductility, strength, toughness

Steel Metallurgy
Steel- Iron and carbon alloyed with other
elements

BCC

FCC

Steel Metallurgy Elastic

Deformatio
n
Low Stress

Increased
Stress
Plastic
Deformatio
n

Heat Treatment

Post heat treatment performed to

improve specific metallurgical or
mechanical properties or stress
relief
Softening
Controlled by
Hardening
Heating rate
Tempering
Stress Relief
Temperature
attained
Time at the
elevated

Heat Treatment
900
Ac3

850

Ar3
800
Ac2
Ar2

750
Ac1

700

Ar1
1

Minutes to raise temperature by 10 C

Iron Carbide Diagram

1000

Ac3

900
800
700

Ac1

600
.2 .4 .6 .8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
2

Iron Carbide Diagram

1000
900
800
700
600

Ac3
Austenite
Austenite and Ferrite

Austenite and Fe3 C

Ac1

Ferrite and
Pearlite and
Pearlite
Cementite
.2 .4 .6 .8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
2

Heat Treatment
Hardening
Produce hard but
brittle material
Heat to above
transformation
range
Cool very quickly
( quench ) in oil,
water or brine

Heat Treatment
Stress Relief
Relax stresses without significant changes in the metallurgical structure
Heat to 550-650 degrees C
Hold for 1 hour per 25mm thickness
Cool in air

Heat Treatment
Full Annealing
Produces very soft low
hardness material for
machining or cold work
Heat to above 910
degrees C
Hold
Cool very slowly in
furnace
Once reached 680 C ,
cool in air

Heat Treatment
Sub Critical Annealing
Spheroidizing produces soft low hardness material cheaper than full anneal
Heat must not rise above 700 degrees C
Hold for recrystallisation to occur
Cool in air

Heat Treatment
Normalising
Maintains and improves mechanical properties and modifies grain structure
Heat to above 910 degrees C
Hold
Cool in air

Nature and Origin of

Defects
Inherent
Processing
In Service

Heat Induced Defects

Heat treatment cracks
Grinding cracks
Friction induced cracks

In Service Cracks
Fatigue cracks
Stress corrosion cracks
Hydrogen induced cracks

Fatique
crack

Cyclic
stress

Hydroge
n