The Movement of Fluid Across the

Plasma Membrane

 Describe the role of aquaporins in water

movement across membranes.
Define and explain osmotic and hydrostatic forces.
Calculate the osmotic pressure gradient.
Define and explain tonicity.
Discuss the effect of hypertonic, isotonic and
hypotonic -solutions on cell volume.
Define non-penetrating, rapid penetrating and
slow penetrating solute
Describe the effect of the administration of
various IV fluids on the internal environment.

The Movement of Water

Across the Plasma Membrane
Water can move in and out of cells.
But the partition coefficient of water into lipids is
low meaning the permeability of the membrane lipid
bilayer for water is low.
Specific membrane proteins that function as water
channels explain the rapid movement of water
across the plasma membrane
These water channels are small integral membrane
proteins known as aquaporins

Water Movement

NaCl 0 mOsm

NaCl 100 mOsm

[water] HIGH

[water] LOW

Aquaporin

If membrane impermeable to NaCl

CLINICAL CORRELATIONIn the kidney, aquaporin-2 (AQP2) is abundant in the collecting

duct and is the target of the hormone vasopressin, also known
as antidiuretic hormone. This hormone increases water
transport in the collecting duct by stimulating the insertion of
AQP2 proteins into the apical plasma membrane. Several
studies have shown that AQP2 has a critical role in inherited and
acquired disorders of water reabsorption by the kidney.
For example, nephrogenic diabetes insipidus is a
condition in which the kidney loses its ability to reabsorb water
properly, resulting in excessive loss of water and excretion of a
large volume of very dilute urine (polyuria). Although
inherited forms of diabetes insipidus are relatively rare, it can
develop in patients receiving chronic lithium therapy for
psychiatric disorders, giving rise to the term lithium-induced
polyuria.
Both of these conditions are associated with a decrease in the
number of AQP2 proteins in the collecting ducts of the kidney.

Osmosis
- Osmosis is the flow of water across a
semipermeable
membrane
from
a
solution with low solute concentration to
a solution with high solute concentration.

 The driving force for the movement of

water across the plasma membrane is the
difference in water concentration
between the two sides of the membrane.
For historical reasons, this driving force is
not called the chemical gradient of water
but the difference in osmotic pressure.
The osmotic pressure of a solution is
defined as the pressure necessary to
stop the net movement of water across a
selectively permeable membrane that
separates the solution from pure water.

The Movement of Water Across the Plasma

Membrane Is Driven by Differences in Osmotic
Pressure
Osmotic pressure of a solution is defined as the
pressure necessary to stop the net movement of water across
a selectively permeable membrane
When a membrane separates two solutions of different
osmotic pressure, water will move from
the solution with low osmotic pressure (high water and low
solute concentrations) to
the solution of high osmotic pressure (low water and high
solute concentrations).

The osmotic

pressure of a solution can be calculated by -

Van't Hoffs law, which states that osmotic pressure depends on the
concentration of osmotically active particles. The concentration of
particles is converted to pressure according to the following equation:

where:

osmotic pressure (mm Hg or atm)

g = number of particles in solution
R = gas constant (0.082 L-atm/mol-K)
= Reflection coefficient (varies from 0 to 1)
T = absolute temperature (K)
C = concentration (mol/L)
7T =

Reflection coefficient ()
is a number between zero and one that
describes the ease with which a solute
permeates a membrane.
a. If the reflection coefficient is 1, the solute is
impermeable. Therefore, it is retained in the
original solution, it creates an osmotic pressure,
and it causes water flow. Serum albumin (a
large solute) has a reflection coefficient of
nearly one.
b. If the reflection coefficient is 0, the solute is
completely permeable. Therefore, it will not
exert any osmotic effect, and it will not cause
water flow. Urea (a small solute) has a reflection
coefficient of close to zero and it is, therefore,
an ineffective osmole

Osmolarity refers to osmotic pressure

generated by the dissolved solute molecules in 1L
of solvent.
It depends strictly on the number of particles in solution
(not the number of molecules, since some molecules (e.g.
NaCl) dissociate into ions when in solution).
Osmolarity is therefore, the number of particles per liter of
solution and is expressed in osmol/L or OsM or in the
case of dilute solutions as milliosmol/L.
Ex- A solution of 1 M CaC12 has a higher osmotic pressure
than a solution of 1 M KCl because the concentration of
particles is higher.
The higher the osmotic pressure of a solution, the greater the
water flow into it.

Units of concentration
mOsm (milliosmolar) or mOsm/L = an
index of the concentration of particles per
liter of solution
mM (millimolar) or mM/L = an index of the
concentration of molecules dissolved per
liter of solution
isotonic solutions = 300 mOsm = 150 mM
NaCl (one NaCl molecule yields two
particles in solution)
300 mOsm = 300 mM glucose

Osmolality and Tonicity

A solutions osmolality is determined
by the total concentration of all the
solutes present.
In contrast, the solutions tonicity is
determined by the concentrations
of only those solutes that do not
enter(penetrate) the cell

Osmolarity

Two solutions having the same effective osmotic

pressure are isotonic because no water flows
across a semipermeable membrane separating
them.

If two solutions separated by a semipermeable

membrane have different effective osmotic
pressures, the solution with the higher effective
osmotic pressure is hypertonic and the solution
with the lower effective osmotic pressure is
hypotonic.

Water flows from the hypotonic to the hypertonic

solution.

RBC hypotonic solution

Rules for predicting tonicity

If the cell has a higher concentration of non-penetrating
solutes than the solution, there will be net movement of
water into the cell. The cell swells, and by definition that
solution is hypotonic.

SWELL

RBC isotonic solution

NO VOLUME CHANGE

RBC hypertonic solution

SHRINK

Tonicity
Tonicity describes the volume change
of a cell placed in a solution

Problems involving a non penetrating solute

Predict the changes in cell volume (increase,
decrease, no change) when a normal RBC
previously equilibrated in isotonic saline is
placed in the following solutions.
Assume the fluid volume of the external solution
is large, and thus, as water moves in or out of
the cell, there is no significant change in the
concentration of beaker solutes .
1. 200 mOsm NaCl
2. 400 mOsm NaCl
3. 150 mM NaCl
4. 300 mM NaCl

Effect of substances that rapidly penetrate cell

membranes

The presence of a substance, such as

urea, ,5% dextrose that penetrates
the cell membrane quickly does not
affect the osmotic movement of
water.
If the total concentration of non
penetrating solutes is <300 mOsm,
the RBC will swell; if it is >300
mOsm,the RBC will shrink.

Problems involving a rapidly penetrating solute

Predict the changes in cell volume

(increase, decrease, no change) when
a normal RBC previously equilibrated
in isotonic saline is placed in the
following solutions:
1. 200 mOsm NaCl and 200 mOsm urea
2. 300 mOsm urea only
3. 500 mOsm urea only

Effect of substances that slowly penetrate cell

membranes

Some substances( glycerol) penetrate cell

membranes but do so slowly.
Thus, they initially have an osmotic effect like
sodium chloride but no osmotic effect at
equilibrium.
Problem involving a slowly penetrating solute
Q.Predict the changes in cell volume (increase,
decrease, no change) when a normal RBC
previously equilibrated in isotonic saline is then
placed in the following solution. Determine the
initial effect versus the long-term effect.
200 mOsm NaCl and 200 mOsm glycerol (a slowly
penetrating substance)

The Clinical Relevance of Understanding

Tonicity
The importance of understanding this well is to make
sure that you understand the basis and rationale for
intravenous fluid therapy.
Several IV fluids exist e.g.
0.9% saline(normal saline)
5% dextrose in normal saline
5% dextrose in water
half normal saline
5% dextrose in half normal saline. (Dextrose is
glucose).
How does the clinician decide which fluid to use? Well,
it depends on what the objectives are replacement of

Discussion on IV solutions
First thing to do is to look at the relative osmolarity
and tonicity of the solution to the extracellular (and
intracellular) fluid. Then take into account what effect
this will have on the volumes of the two fluid
compartments.

1. 0.9% saline. This has the same osmolarity as

the intracellular fluid. The saline is NaCl so the two
particles Na and Cl are considered to be nonpenetrating. Therefore this solution is iso-osmotic and
isotonic. Because it is isotonic it will not change the
tonicity of the extracellular fluid and so the
extracellular fluid will remain isotonic to the
intracellular fluid. Therefore NO FLUID MOVEMENT
INTO THE CELLS. This solution would be suitable for
replacing blood (extracellular fluid).

to the intracellular fluid, so is normal saline. Therefore you

must take into account both of these when working out the
overall osmolarity. This solution has twice the osmolarity of
the intracellular fluid. Therefore it is HYPEROSMOTIC.
Dextrose is penetrating , so makes no contribution to the
tonicity of the solution. Saline is non-penetrating it does
make a contribution. Therefore the solution is ISOTONIC.
Infusion of this solution into the veins would not change the
tonicity of the extracellular fluid so NO NET FLUID MOVEMENT
INTO THE CELLS. Notice the NET. Rapid infusion of this
solution will lead initially to some water movement out of the
cells which will be reversed as the dextrose moves into the
cells. This solution would be suitable for replacing blood.
3. 5% Dextrose in water. 5% dextrose is iso-osmotic to the
intracellular fluid. Water is, of course, hypo-osmotic (0 mosm)
(it has no particles). This solution therefore is iso-osmotic to
the intracellular fluid. Water has no tonicity and dextrose is
penetrating . This solution has no tonicity so is HYPOTONIC to
the intracellular fluid. Infusion of this solution will make the
extracellular fluid hypotonic to the intracellular fluid so some
of the infused fluid will enter the cell. THERE IS THEREFORE

hypo-osmotic to the intracellular fluid. The

particles are non-penetrating but again you have
half the number of particles. This solution is
therefore HYPOTONIC to the intracellular fluid.
Infusion of this solution will make the extracellular
fluid hypotonic to the intracellular fluid so some of
the infused fluid will enter the cell. THERE IS
THEREFORE FLUID MOVEMENT INTO THE CELLS.
This solution would be suitable for rehydrating
cells.
5. 5% Dextrose in half normal saline. 5%
dextrose is iso-osmotic to the intracellular fluid, half
normal saline is hypo-osmotic. However if you
have them together in a solution the result is
hyperosmotic to the intracellular fluid. Only the
saline is non-penetrating , therefore the solution is
HYPOTONIC to the intracellular fluid. Infusion of
this fluid will decrease the tonicity of the

In order to replenish the fluid and

electrolyte loss in diarrhoea, a person
is given ORS. Of the following
composition of ORS, which of the
following along with Na is more
important for replenishing Na loss?
a. K
b. Cl
c. Glucose
d. Citrate

Oral Rehydration Therapy Is Driven

by Solute Transport
Oral administration of rehydration solutions has
dramatically reduced the mortality resulting from
cholera and other diseases that involve excessive
losses of water and solutes from the gastrointestinal
tract. The main ingredients of rehydration solutions
are glucose, NaCl, and water. The glucose and Na+
ions are reabsorbed by SGLT1 and other transporters in
the epithelial cells lining the lumen of the small
intestine .
Deposition of these solutes on the basolateral side of
the epithelial cells increases the osmolarity in that
region compared with the intestinal lumen and drives
the osmotic absorption of water. Absorption of glucose,
and the obligatory increases in absorption of NaCl and