Typologies of culture

HIGH AND LOW CONTEXT

CULTURE (E.T.HALL)
Low-context cultures information and
rules are explicit (e.g. USA)
High-context cultures information and
rules are implicit (e.g. African cultures,
Latin American)

GEERT HOFSTEDE
CULTURAL TYPOLOGY

Includes three broad

dimensions:
Expected Social Behavior (Individualistic
or group; Low or high power distance;
masculine or feminine).
Mans search for truth (high or low
uncertainty avoidance).
Importance of time (short term or long
term orientation).

Geert Hofstedes cultural typology

based upon a study of 100,000 IBM
employees who work in IBM divisions
throughout the world.
dimensions of culture:
Power Distance
Uncertainty Avoidance
Individualism/Collectivism
Masculinity/Femininity
Long-Term Orientation

Power Distance (PD)

Measures the extent to which less
powerful members of organizations accept
the unequal distribution of power
Artifacts of high PD:
Centralization
# Org. Levels- Height
# Supervisors
Wage Differentials
Values

Power Distance (PD)

Power distance: country examples and organizational implications

Power Distance (PD)

Rank distinctions among the Japanese

Uncertainty Avoidance (UA)

Uncertainty Avoidance is the extent to which
uncertainty and ambiguity are tolerated.
Artifacts of high UA:

Standardization
Structured activities
Written rules
Specialists
No risk tolerance
Ritualistic behavior

Uncertainty Avoidance (UA)

Uncertainty avoidance: country examples and
organizational implications

Individualism/Collectivism (I/C)
I/C is the extent to which the self or the group
constitutes the center point of identification
for the individual.
Individual self interest is pursued individually,
or as a part of a group.
Artifacts of I/C
Firm as family
Utilitarian decision making
Group performance

Individualism/Collectivism
Individualism exists when people define
themselves as individuals. It implies
loosely knit social frameworks in which
people are supposed to take care only of
themselves and their immediate families.
Collectivism is characterized by tight
social frameworks in which people
distinguish between their own groups (i.e.,
relatives, organizations) and other groups.

Individualism/Collectivism (I/C)
Individualism/collectivism: country examples and
organizational implications

Masculinity-Femininity (M/F)
Refers to the extent to which traditional
masculine values, like aggressiveness and
assertiveness, are valued.
Artifacts of M/F
Sex Roles Minimized
More Women In Jobs
Interpersonal Skills Rewarded
Intuitive Skills Rewarded
Social Rewards Valued

 MASCULINITY measures the extent to

which the dominant values in society
emphasize assertiveness and acquisition
of money things while not particularly
emphasizing concern for people.

FEMININITY is the extent to which

dominant values in society emphasize
relationships among people, concern for
others, and the overall quality of life.

Masculinity-Femininity (M/F)
Masculinity/femininity: country examples and
organizational implications

Long-Term Orientation (LTO)

Confucian Dynamism (synonym)
Values: thrift, persistence, and traditional
respect of social obligations
Organizations are likely to adopt longer
planning horizon, with individuals ready to
delay gratification.

Long-Term Orientation (LTO)

Country scores on
Confucian
dynamism (longterm orientation)

VALUE ORIENTATION

Florence Kluckhohn
and Fred Strodtbeck

value orientations are deeply held beliefs

about the way the world should be, and
not necessarily the way it is

human nature orientation

innate character of human nature
should human beings be seen as good,
evil, or a mixture of ?
are human beings capable of change
(mutable) or are not able to change
(immutable)?

person-nature orientation
the potential types of relations between
humans and nature
(mastery over nature, harmony with
nature, or subjugation to nature)

relational orientation
INDIVIDUALISM
LINEALITY
COLLATERALLY

relational orientation
individualism

preference for individual goals and

objectives over group objectives

relational orientation
lineality

focuses on the group and group goals

crucial issue is the continuity of the group
through time

relational orientation
laterality

focuses on the value of the group, group

members goals but not the group
extended through time

activity orientation
Doing
Being
Being-in-becoming (growing)

activity orientation
doing
emphasizes productivity and tangible
outcomes

activity orientation
being
spontaneity, emotional gratification, and
personal balane

activity orientation
final activity orientation, being-inbecoming

concerned with who we are and places

importance on spiritual development

time orientation
examines how cultures come to terms with
the past, the present, and the future

past orientation
predominates in cultures placing a high
value on tradition and emphasizing
ancestors and strong family ties

present orientation
predominates where people see only the
here and now as real the past is seen
as unimportant and the future is seen as
vague and unpredictable

future orientation
highly values change and progress

QUESTIONS?