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The term universe includes all celestial bodies as well as the intervening
space between them
It consists of innumerable galaxies separated from each other by immense
distances
A normal galaxy is a large flattened system consisting of millions of stars
and gas clouds
The galaxies rotate about their centers and are also moving away from
each other at phenomenal speeds
An average galaxy had a diameter of about 100,000 light years
1 light year = 6 million miles
The sun is an average sized star and belongs to the milky way galaxy.
It is situated about 30,000 light years from the center of the galaxy
The sun revolves about the center of the galaxy with the rest of the galaxy
It completes one revolution in about 200 million years
Therefore the sun and all the stars are not stationary but mobile
Their movement is not apparent to us here on earth because we move
along with them
The sun
is the most important member of the system
has a diameter of about 865,000 miles
the only body in the solar system which radiates light
rotates on its own axis completing one rotation in about 25 days
Planets
not self luminous and are only visible because they reflect the suns light
In order of their distance from the sun, the planets are Mercury, Venus, Earth and
Mars termed together as the inner group and Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and
Pluto termed together as the outer planets
Mercury and Venus are known as Inferior Planets while the next 6 planets are known
as Superior Planets
All planets revolve around the sun in a counterclockwise direction and also rotate on
their own axis
Meteors
Commonly known as shooting stars
Are frequently small bits of debris frequently originating from comets
When they pass through the Earths atmosphere they heat up and glow due to
friction
Most meteors burn out in the atmosphere although larger ones occasionally
reach the ground
The once that reach the ground are called meteorites
Name
Mean
Diameter(mi
Distance from
les)
Sun(miles)
Period of
rotation
Period of
revolution
around the
sun
Sun
865400
25.14 days
Mercury
36x106
3000
88 days
88 days
Venus
67.3x106
7848
Not known
224.7 days
Earth
93x106
7927
23hrs 56min
365.25 days
Mars
141.7x106
4268
23hrs 37min
687 days
Jupiter
483.9x106
89329
09hrs 50 min
11.86 days
Saturn
887.9x106
75021
10hrs 02min
29.46 days
Uranus
1783.9x106
33219
10.8hrs
84 yrs.
States that all planets revolve around the sun in elliptical orbits with
the Sun being on one of the Foci of the ellipse
An ellipse is a focus of a point such that the sum of the distances from
the point to the two foci is always constant
The orbits of the planets are nearly circular
Celestial poles
Two points on the celestial poles directly above the Earths north and south
poles through which the Earths axis passes Circle
Celestial Equator(Equinoctial)
Is a great circle on the celestial sphere in the same place as the celestial
equator
It is a projection of the equator
Every point on the equinoctial is 90 from the celestial poles
Parallels of declination
Small circles on the celestial sphere, planes of which are parallel to the
equinoctial
Correspond to the meridians of the earth
Celestial meridians
Semi great circles on the celestial sphere the planes of which pass through
the celestial poles
Correspond to the meridians on the earth
Nadir
the point on the opposite side of the sphere vertically
below the observer
Declination
The bodys angular distance from the celestial equator
The location of a body on its hour circle is defined by
its declination
A circle parallel to the celestial equator is called a
parallel of declination since it connects all points of
equal declination
Earth
Celestial Equator
Horizon
1.
Equator
Celestial Equator
Horizon
2.
Poles
Celestial Poles
Horizon
3.
Meridians
Zenith; Nadir
4.
Prime Meridian
Vertical Circles
5.
Parallels of latitude
Parallels of declination
Parallels of altitude
6.
Latitude
Declination
Altitude
7.
Colatitude
Polar distance
Zenith distance
Azimuth; Azimuth
Sextant errors
Adjustable sextant error
1. Perpendicularity Error: Adjust first for
perpendicularity of the index mirror to the frame
of the sextant. To test for perpendicularity:
place the index arm at about 35 on the arc and hold the sextant
on its side with the index mirror up and toward the eye
Observe the direct and reflected views of the sextant arc,
If the two views are not joined in a straight line, the index mirror
is not perpendicular.
If the reflected image is above the direct view, the mirror is
inclined forward
If the reflected image is below the direct view, the mirror is
inclined backward.
Make the adjustment using two screws behind the index mirror.
Sextant errors
Adjustable sextant error
2. Side Error: An error resulting from the horizon
glass not being perpendicular is called side
error
set the index arm at zero and direct the line of sight at a star
Then rotate the tangent screw back and forth so that the
reflected image passes alternately above and below the direct
view
If, in changing from one position to the other, the reflected
image passes directly over the unreflected image, no side
error exists.
If it passes to one side, side error exists
Make the appropriate adjustment using two screws behind the
horizon glass
Sextant errors
Adjustable sextant errors
3.Collimation Error: If the line of sight through the
telescope is not parallel to the plane of the instrument, a
collimation error will result. Altitudes measured will be
greater than their actual values. To check for parallelism of
the telescope:
insert it in its collar and observe two stars 90 or more apart
Bring the reflected image of one into coincidence with the direct
view of the other near either the right or left edge of the field of
view (the upper or lower edge if the sextant is horizontal)
Then tilt the sextant so that the stars appear near the opposite
edge
If they remain in coincidence, the telescope is parallel to the
frame; if they separate, it is not
Adjust the collar to correct for non-parallelism
Sextant errors
Non adjustable errors
1. Prismatic error occurs when the faces of the shade
glasses and mirrors are not parallel.
2. Graduation errors occur in the arc, micrometer
drum, and vernier of a sextant which is improperly cut
or incorrectly calibrated
3. Centering error results if the index arm does not
pivot at the exact center of the arcs curvature
Note: The manufacturer normally determines the
magnitude of all three non-adjustable errors and reports
them to the user as instrument error. The navigator
should apply the correction for this error to each sextant
reading
Index error
No index error
3. Refraction:
It is due to the passageof theoptical beamthrough
the layersof air withdifferentdensitythat are
abovethe earth's surface.
Refraction should be subtracted from the apparent
altitude to get the True Altitude
Altitude
Star
3529.5
Sextant Altitude
4828.8
-2.0
Index error
-2.0
-1.2
Instrument error
-1.2
3526.3
Observed Altitude
4825.6
-2.8
Dip
-2.8
3523.5
Apparent Altitude
4822.8
-1.2
Refraction
-0.9
3523.5
True Altitude
4821.9
+15.7
Semi-diameter
NA
3538.0
True Altitude
4821.9
Sextant altitude-Summary of
corrections(Sun)
Sextant altitude-Summary of
corrections(Stars and Planets)
Sextant altitude-Summary of
corrections(Moon)
Sextant altitude-Summary of
corrections from almanac(Sun)
Sextant altitude-Summary of
corrections from almanac(Stars
and planets)
Sextant altitude-Summary of
corrections from almanac(Moon)
Azimuth
The azimuth of a heavenly body is the angle at the
observers zenith contained between the observers
meridian and the vertical circle passing through the
body.
Basically, azimuth is the bearing of the heavenly
body with respect to the observer
The azimuth can be calculated either
mathematically, or by using the Azimuth Tables
The azimuth is used to observe the compass error
by taking the bearing of the heavenly body and
comparing it with the result of the azimuth
calculation
Amplitudes
A celestial bodys amplitude angle is the complement of its azimuth angle
At the moment that a body rises or sets, the amplitude angle is the arc of the
horizon between the body and the East/West point of the horizon where the
observers prime vertical intersects the horizon (at 90)
It is also the point where the plane of the equator intersects the horizon
In practical navigation, a bearing of a body can be observed when it is on
either the celestial or the visible horizon
To determine compass error, simply convert the computed amplitude angle to
true degrees and compare it with the observed compass bearing
The angle is computed by the formula:
sin A = sin Dec / cos Lat.
This formula gives the angle at the instant the body is on the celestial horizon.
The angle is prefixed E if the body is rising and W if it is setting.
This is the only angle in celestial navigation referenced FROM East or West, i.e.
from the prime vertical.
A body with northerly declination will rise and set North of the prime vertical
Likewise, a body with southerly declination will rise and set South of the prime
vertical
Amplitudes
The Sun is on the celestial horizon when its lower limb is
approximately two thirds of a diameter above the visible
horizon
The Moon is on the celestial horizon when its upper limb is
on the visible horizon.
Stars and planets are on the celestial horizon when they are
approximately one Sun diameter above the visible horizon
When observing a body on the visible horizon, a correction
from Table 23 must be applied
This correction accounts for the slight change in bearing as
the body moves between the visible and celestial horizons
It reduces the bearing on the visible horizon to the celestial
horizon, from which the table is computed.
Amplitude
Assuming the body is the Sun the
rule for applying the correction can
be outlined as follows:
Observers Latitude
Rising/Setting
Observed bearing
North
Rising
Add to
North
Setting
Subtract from
South
Rising
Subtract from
South
Setting
Add to
Amplitudes
Step 1:Observe the sun's bearing on the celestial horizon, noting time of
observation. This is best accomplished with an azimuth circle, or telescopic
alidade for smaller bodies.
Step 2:Find time in GMT for use in NA
Step 3: Find Declination, make sure to note whether South or North and the
trend in values, i.e. if the values are increasing, the d correction is to be
added; if the values are decreasing, the d correction is to be subtracted.
Step 4:Convert Latitude and Declination from minutes and seconds into
minutes and tenths of minutes. The easiest way to accomplish this is to use
your calculator and divide the minutes by 60 and add the whole degrees.
(ex. For 28-06 N, 6/60=0.1, 28+0.1= 28.1 N.)
Step 5:Find Amplitude (A) by using the equation sin A= (sin Dec/cos Lat).
Step 6: Finding Zn from A.
Step 7: Solve for Compass Error
Using either TVMDC or GET, solve for compass error or deviation, and you're
done. TVMDC is for correction magnetic compasses, GET is for gyros. GET
stands for Gyro + East error = True, if you know two parts, you can find the
third.
Nautical Almanac
A publication describing the positions of a selection of celestial bodies for the
purpose of enabling navigators to use celestial navigation to determine the
position of their ship while at sea.
The Almanac specifies for each whole hour of the year the position on the
Earth's surface (in declination and Greenwich hour angle) at which the sun,
moon, planets and first point of Aries is directly overhead
The positions of 57 selected stars are specified relative to the first point of
Aries
Published every year since 1767 and 1852 by GB and by US Naval
Observatory
In addition, it gives times of sunrise, sunset, twilights, moonrise and moonset,
phases of the Moon and eclipses of the Sun and Moon for use in the planning
of observations.
All the necessary interpolation and altitude correction tables are provided as
well as pole star tables and diagrams
Information on standard times for most countries around the world is
provided.
A concise set of sight reduction tables and a sight reduction form are also
included.
2.Planets
GHA and declination of the planets for Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn
for each hour
Magnitudes as well as v and d corrections applicable on all three days
SHAs at 0000hrs GMT
GMT of their middle date and the GMT of their Greenwich Mer. Pass. are
listed below the star tables
4. Sun
GHA and declination provided for each hour
The Semidiameter for the middle day and d
applicable for all three days
Equation of time tabulated for 00hrs and 12hrs
GMT on each of the three days
GMT of Greenwich Meridian passage of the Sun on
each of the three days
Tables of standard time gives the time difference between GMT and the
standard time of different areas of the world
Star charts are provided separately showing the northern, southern and
equatorial stars. These charts help in the identification of important stars.
A table containing a list of 173 stars in order of ascending SHA with
information on
Constellation names(left hand corner)
Magnitude
Proper names
SHAs and declinations for each month
Position Fixing
Position lines
A line somewhere on which the ship must be
situated
True bearing of a terrestrial object provides position
line in a direction opposite to bearing
Its not possible to obtain a ships position from a
single position line
Atleast two position lines are required to fix position
Their intersection gives the position of the ship
The accuracy of the fix increases as the angle
between the position lines approaches 90
Position Fixing
Position circles
From the vertical sextant angle of an object, it is
possible to determine the distance of an object of
known height
The distance calculated will then be used to draw a
circle of a radius equal to the calculated distance
with the object at the center
The observer will be in any of the points on the
circumference of that circle
By measuring the sextant of another object of known
height and drawing a similar circle, the intersection
of the two circles will be the position of the observer
Position Fixing
Transferred position lines:
Position lines maybe transferred through the course
and distance made good(provided course and
distance are known
Allowance for drift or leeway should be accounted for
In this case the ship will located along the transferred
position line
Hence by taking the bearing of the same object at a
different time a fix can be obtained
Position circles can also be transferred by shifting the
center of the position circle along the course and
distance made good