Designing the Highway

Consistency
Making every element of the roadway
conform to the expectation of every driver.
Drivers expect agency to provide them with:
Clear information and guidance
through a variety of road signs.

as

Avoiding abrupt changes in the traffic

well as the road standards

Design speed
The maximum safe speed that can be
maintained over a specified section of highway
when conditions are so favorable that the
design features of the highway govern.
Design speed is a selected speed used to
determine the various geometric features of the
roadway. The assumed design speed should be
a logical one with respect to the topography,
anticipated operating speed, the adjacent land
use, and the functional classification of the
highway.

Factors that influence Design Speed

The functional classification of the highway
The character of the terrain
The density and character of adjacent land
uses
The traffic volumes expected to use the
highway
The economic and environmental
considerations.

Design Speed
Typically, an arterial highway warrants a
higher design speed than a local road; a
highway located in level terrain warrants a
higher design speed than one in mountainous
terrain; a highway in a rural area warrants a
higher design speed than one in an urban area;
and a high volume highway warrants a higher
designspeedthan one carrying low traffic
volumes.

Types of Roadway
Freeway
Arterial
Collector
Local

Freeway
This is a divided major roadway with full
control of access and with no crossings at
grade. This definition applies to toll as well as
non-toll roads.

Arterial
Anarterial road, orarterial thoroughfare,
is a high-capacity urbanroad. The primary
function of an arterial road is to deliver traffic
fromcollector roadstofreeways, and between
urban
centers
at
the
highestlevel
of
servicepossible.

Collector
Acollector roadordistributor roadis a
low to moderate-capacityroadwhich serves to
move traffic from localstreetstoarterial roads.
Unlike arterials, collectors are also designed to
provide access to residential properties.

Ranges for Design Speed

Type
of
Road
way
F
R
E
E
W
A
Y

Rural

Urban

Terrain US
(mi/h)

Metric
(km/h)

US
(mi/h)

Metric
(km/h)

LEVEL

70

110

50min

80min

ROLLING

70

110

50min

80min

MOUNTAINOU
S

50-60

80-110 50min

80min

Ranges for Design Speed

Type
of
Road
way
A
R
T
E
R
I
A
L

Rural

Urban

US
Terrain (mi/h)

Metric
(km/h)

US
(mi/h)

Metric
(km/h)

LEVEL

60-75

100120

30-60

50-100

ROLLING

50-60

80-100 30-60

50-100

MOUNTAINOU
S

40-50

60-80

50-100

30-60

Ranges for Design Speed

Type
of
Road
way
C
O
L
L
E
C
T
O
R

Rural

Urban

US
Terrain (mi/h)

Metric
(km/h)

US
(mi/h)

Metric
(km/h)

LEVEL

40-60

60-100 30+

50+

ROLLING

30-50

50-80

30+

50+

MOUNTAINOU
S

20-40

30-60

30+

50+

Ranges for Design Speed

Type
of
Road
way
L

Rural

Urban

US
Terrain (mi/h)

Metric
(km/h)

US
(mi/h)

Metric
(km/h)

LEVEL

30-50

50-80

20-30

30-50

ROLLING

20-40

30-60

20-30

30-50

MOUNTAINOU
S

20-30

30-50

20-30

30-50

O
C
A
L

Cross-section of Typical Highway

The cross section of a road includes some or all
of the following elements:
Traveled way(the portion of the roadway provided
for the movement of vehicles, exclusive of shoulders)
Roadway(the portion of a highway, including
shoulders, provided for vehicular use)
Medianarea (the physical or painted separation
provided on divided highways between two adjacent
roadways)
Bicycle and pedestrian facilities
Utility and landscape areas
Drainage channels and side slopes
Clear zone width(i.e., the distance from the edge of
the traveled way to either a fixed obstacle or
nontraversable slope)

Cross-section ELEMENTS
Travel Lanes
The number of lanes needed for a facility
is usually determined during the concept stage
of project development. It is usually the number
of lanes necessary to accommodate the
expected traffic volumes at a level of service
determined to be appropriate for the facility.

Cross-section ELEMENTS
Lane Width
The width of travel lanes is limited by the
physical dimensions of automobiles and trucks to a
range between 2.7 and 3.6 m (9 and 12 ft).
Generally, as the design speed of a highway
increases, so must the lane width to allow for the
lateral movement of vehicles within the lane.
Although lane widths of 3.6 m are desirable on both
rural and urban facilities, there are circumstances
that necessitate the use of lanes less than 3.6 m
wide. In urban areas where rightofway and existing
development become stringent controls, the use of
3.3 m lanes is acceptable. Lanes 3.0 m wide are
acceptable on low speed facilities. Lanes 2.7 m wide
are appropriate on low volume roads in rural and
residential areas.

Cross-section ELEMENTS
Medians
An important consideration in the design of
any multilane highway is whether to provide a median
and, if one is provided, what the dimensions should
be. The primary functions of highway medians are to:
Separate opposing traffic flows
Provide a recovery area for out of control vehicles
Allow space for speed changes and left
turning and U turning vehicles
Minimize headlight glare
Provide width for future lanes
Provide a space for landscape planting that is in
keeping
with safety needs and improves the
aesthetics of the facility
Provide a space for barriers.

Cross-section ELEMENTS
Clear Zones
An important consideration in defining
the appropriate cross section for a particular
highway facility is the width of the clear zone.
"...the unobstructed, relatively flat area
provided beyond the edge of the traveled way
for the recovery of errant vehicles."

Cross-section ELEMENTS
Curbs
Used primarily in urban and suburban
environments, curbs can serve some or all of
the following functions:
Drainage control
Roadway edge delineation
Right of way reduction
Aesthetics
Delineation of pedestrian walkways
Reduction of maintenance operations
Assistance in roadside development.

Cross-section ELEMENTS
There are basically two types of curbs:
barrier and mountable. Flexibility in the use of
either type is a handy tool for a highway
designer when defining the cross section of an
improvement project. Barriertype curbs are not,
however, recommended for projects with design
speeds above 65 km/h (40 mph).
Curbs can be constructed from a variety
of materials, including concrete, asphalt, and
cut stone. Figure 6.3 illustrates a variety of
commonly used barrier and mountable curbs.

Cross-section ELEMENTS

Typical Cross Section of Highways

Typical Cross Section of Highways

Typical Cross Section of Highways

Typical Cross Section of Highways

Typical Cross Section of Highways

Typical Cross Section of Highways

Road Shoulder
Shoulder
Road shoulder or verge is defined as that
portion of the road-way between the edge of
the traffic lane and the edge of the ditch,
gutters, curb or side slope. AASHTO requires
that its usable pavement width shall be strong
enough to support a vehicle.
Shoulder widths typically vary from as
little as 0.6 m (2 ft) on minor rural roads, where
there is no surfacing, to about 3.6 m (12 ft) on
major highways, where the entire shoulder may
be stabilized or paved.

Road Shoulder

Road Shoulder
The importance of road shoulders
1. Road shoulder serves as a place for vehicles to
stop when disabled, or for some other purposes.
Road shoulder considerably reduces road accidents.
2. The road capacity is decreased and accident
opportunity increases if the shoulder is too narrow or
omitted in the design.
3. Shoulder should be continuous along the full
length of the roadway. It also add structural strength
to the road pavement.
4. Shoulder increases the horizontal sight distance on
curves. It reduces accident potential when vehicle
stop during emergencies.

Road Shoulder
WIDTH OF ROADWAY FOR UNDIVIDED HIGHWAY
Total Travel
way
14.00 m.

Shoulder
Width
3.25

Roadway
Width
20.50

Speed of
Reference
100-80-60-40

12.00 m.

3.25

18.50

60-40

7.00 m.

2.75

12.50

100-80-60-40

7.00 m.

2.00

11.00

80-60-40

6.70 m.

2.75

12.20

100-80-60-40

6.70 m.

2.00

10.70

80-60-40

6.00 m.

2.75

11.50

80-60-40

6.00 m.

1.50

9.00

80-60-40

Cut and Fill Slope

Cut slopes
Are rarely created greater than a slope of
two
to
one
(horizontal
to
vertical
dimensions).Cut sections of roadway or rail are
characterized by the roadway being lower in
elevation than the surrounding terrain. From an
operational
standpoint
there
are
unique
environmental effects associated with cut
sections of roadway. For example, air pollutants
can concentrate in the 'valleys' created by the
cut
section.
Conversely,noise
pollutionis
mitigated by cut sections since an effective
blockage of line of sight sound propagation is
created by the depressed roadway design.

Cut and Fill Slope

Fill
sections manifest as elevated sections of a
roadway or track bed. Environmental effects of fill
sections are typically favorable with respect to air
pollution dispersal, but in the matter ofsound
propagation, exposure of nearby residents is
generally increased, sincesound wallsand other
forms of sound path blockage are less effective in this
geometry.
There are a variety of reasons for creating fills,
among them reduction ofgradealong a route or
elevation of the route above water, swampy ground,
or areas where snow drifts frequently collect. Fills can
also be used to cover tree stumps, rocks, or unstable
soil, in which case material with a higher bearing
capacity is placed on top of the obstacle in order to
carry the weight of the roadway or railway and reduce
differential settlement.

The Cross Slope

The cross slope is provided in all tangent

sections of the roadway. Slopes usually fall in
both directions from the centre line of the two
lane highway except where super elevation of
curves direct all water towards the inside.
For a high type pavement, the crown or slope is
often 1% to 2%. However, steeper slopes are
strongly recommended because rainwater
flow away more rapidly and thereby reducing
the water thickness on the road pavement. A
cross slope in one direction of a multi-lane
highways makes driving comfortable, but with
heavy rainfall, the water depth increases on
the roadway.

Number of Lanes
The number of lanes in a segment of the
highway is determined from the estimated traffic
volume for the design year and highway capacity
lane at expected level of service.

Highway Median
A median is a portion of a divided
highway separating the traveled way for
traffic in the opposing direction. The median
width is the dimension between the throughlane edges and includes left shoulders, if
any. A median provides freedom from the
interference of opposing traffic, a recovery
area for out-of-control vehicles, a stopping
area in case of emergencies, room for speed
changes and storage of left- and U-turning
vehicles and for less headlight glare, and
space for additional future lanes.

Highway Median
Although medians should be as wide as
possible, economic factors often limit this
width because of cost of land and general
maintenance. Medians are classified as
traversable, deterring, or barrier.
Traversable medians are merely paint stripes
or buttons and are easily traversable.
When a mountable curb or corrugation is
provided, it is known as deterring median.
Barrier median is usually in the form of a
guardrail or a concrete wall that prevents
traffic from crossing over.

The Grade Line

Grade line is a line or slope used as a longitudinal

reference for a railroad or highway. Inclinations
with the horizontal of a road, railroad, etc.,
usually expressed by stating the vertical rise or
fall as a percentage of the horizontal distance;
slope.
In vehicular engineering, various land-based
designs (cars, SUVs, trucks, trains, etc.) are rated
for their ability to ascend terrain. (Trains typically
rate much lower than cars.) The highest grade a
vehicle can ascend while maintaining a particular
speed is sometimes termed that vehicle's
"gradeability" (or, less often, "grade ability"). The
lateral slopes of highway geometry are
sometimes called fills or cuts where these
techniques have been used to create them.

The Grade Line

One factor that significantly influences the

selection of a highway location is the terrain
the land, which in turn affects the laying of the
grade line. The primary factor that the designer
considers on laying the grade line is the
amount of earthwork that will be necessary for
the selected grade line. The height of the grade
line is usually dictated by expected floodwater
level. Grade lines should also be set such that
the minimum sight distance requirements are
obtained.

Maximum grade - Maximum grade is determined

by a table, with up to 6% allowed in
mountainous areas and hilly urban areas.

The Grade Line

grade line (PGL) - This is a single line,

Profile
straight or curved, along the length of the
highway, sometimes but not always on the
center of the highway.
Grade separation - is the process of aligning a
junction of two or more transport axes at
different heights (grades) so that they will not
disrupt the traffic flow on other transit routes
when they cross each other. The composition of
such transport axes does not have to be
uniform; it can consist of a mixture of roads,
footpaths, railways, canals, or airport runways.
Bridges, tunnels, or a combination of both can
be built at a junction to achieve the needed
grade separation.

Vertical Curve Over Crest

All vertical curves should not be shorter

than the established minimum over crest. This
is governed by the sight distance
requirements. AASHTO suggested that the
minimum curve length varies with the design
in meters distance equals to 8 times the
velocity in kilometers per hour.
The vertical distance from the
intersection of the straight grade line to the
curve is equal to one eight of the product of
the algebraic difference in grades and the
length of the curve in stations. This is called
maximum correction.

Right-of-Way

A right-of-way (R/W) is a strip of land that

is granted, through an easement or other
mechanism, for transportation purposes,
such as for a trail, driveway, rail line or
highway. A right-of-way is reserved for the
purposes of maintenance or expansion of
existing services with the right-of-way. In the
case of an easement, it may revert to its
original owners if the facility is abandoned.
The right-of-way has three basic
categories distinguished by the degree of
separation from other traffic:

Right-of-Way

A: a grade-separated or
CATEGORY
exclusive. It is a fully controlled R/W without
grade crossings or any legal access by other
vehicles. In some ways, this category
resembles a freeway system.
CATEGORY B: includes R/W types that are
longitudinally physically separated from other
traffic, but with grade crossing for vehicles and
pedestrians, including regular street
intersections. A light-rail system that crosses a
few streets at the surface falls into this
category.
CATEGORY C: surface streets with mixed traffic.
Most bus systems and streetcar systems fall
into this category.

Road Alignment

Road alignment should be consistent. An abrupt

change from flat to sharp curve and long tangents
followed by sharp curve should be avoided
because it will only create hazard and invite
accident. Similarly, designing circular curves of
different radius from end to end or compounded
curve is not a good practice, unless suitable
transitions between them are provided.
To have a short tangent between two curves is
also poor practice. Along flat curve is acceptable
at all times. It is pleasuring to look at, with less
probability of future obsolescence. Alignment
should be provided with tangent because there
are drivers who hesitate to pass on curves. A short
curve appears like kinks. A long flat curve is
preferred for small changes in direction.