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BATUAN DAN PROPERTI RESERVOIR

Sedimentary rocks are


classified into three
groups. These groups
are clastic, chemical
precipitate and
biochemical (or
biogenic).

Siliciclastic rocks are clastic non


carbonate sedimentary rocks
that are almost exclusively silicabearing, either as forms of
quartz or other silicate minerals.
All siliciclastic rocks are formed
by inorganic processes, or
deposited through some
mechanical process, such as
stream deposits that are
subsequently lithified. They are
sandstone based rocks
accounting for about 50 - 60% of
the world oil and gas
exploration.

SANDSTON
E

Clastic sedimentary rocks may be regarded


as falling along a scale of grain size, with
shale being the finest with particles less
than 0.002 mm, siltstone being a little
bigger with particles between 0.002 to
0.063 mm, and sandstone being coarser
still with grains 0.063 to 2 mm, and
conglomerates and breccias being more
coarse with grains 2 to 263 mm. Breccia
has sharper particles, while conglomerate
is categorized by its rounded particles.
Particles bigger than 263 mm are termed
blocks (angular) or boulders (rounded).
Lutite, Arenite and Rudite are general terms
for sedimentary rock with clay/silt-, sandor conglomerate/breccia-sized particles.

The colour of a sedimentary rock is


often mostly determined by iron, an
element which has two major oxides:
iron(II) oxide and iron(III) oxide.
Iron(II) oxide only forms under
anoxic circumstances and gives the
rock a grey or greenish colour.
Iron(III) oxide is often in the form of
the mineral hematite and gives the
rock a reddish to brownish colour. In
arid continental climates rocks are in
direct contact with the atmosphere,
and oxidation is an important
process, giving the rock a red or
orange colour

The size, form and orientation


of clasts or minerals in a rock
is called its texture. The
texture is a small-scale
property of a rock, but
determined many of its largescale properties, such as the
density, porosity or
permeabililty.
Clastic rocks have a 'clastic
texture', which means they
consist of clasts. The 3D
orientation of these clasts is
called the fabric of the rock.
Between the clasts the rock
can be composed of a matrix
or a cement

The form of a clast can be


described by using four
parameters:
'surface texture' describes the
amount of small-scale relief of
the surface of a grain which is
too small to have influence on
the general shape;
'rounding' describes the general
smoothness of the shape of a
grain;
'sphericity' describes the degree
in with the grain approaches a
sphere; and
'grain form' is used to describe
the 3D shape of the grain.

The mineralogy of a clastic rock is


determined by the supplied material
from the source area, the manner of
transport to the place of deposition
and the stability of a particular
mineral. The stability of the major
rock forming minerals (their
resistance to weathering) is
expressed by
Bowen's reaction series. In this
series, quartz is most stable,
followed by feldspar, micas and
other less stable minerals that will
only be present when little
weathering occurred.

The amount of
weathering depends
mainly on the distance to
the source area, the local
climate and the time it
took for the sediment to
be transported there. In
most sedimentary rocks,
mica, feldspar and less
stable minerals will have
reacted to clay minerals
like kaolinite, illite or
smectite.

The term diagenesis is


used to describe all the
chemical, physical, and
biological changes,
including cementation,
undergone by a sediment
after its initial deposition,
exclusive of surface
weathering. Some of these
processes cause the
sediment to consolidate: a
compact, solid substance
forms out of loose
material.

Carbonates

Carbonates form a large


proportion of all
sedimentary rocks.
Carbonate rocks
dominantly consist of
carbonate minerals like
calcite, aragonite or
dolomite. Both cement and
clasts (including fossils and
ooids) of a carbonate rock
can consist of carbonate
minerals. Carbonates
usually have an irregular
structure.

The most common are


calcite or
calcium carbonate,
CaCO3, the chief
constituent of limestone
(as well as the main
component of mollusc
shells and coral
skeletons); dolomite, a
calcium-magnesium
carbonate CaMg(CO3)2;
and siderite, or iron (II)
carbonate, FeCO3, an
important iron ore.

Limestone is partially soluble,


especially in acid, and therefore
forms many erosional landforms.
These include
limestone pavements, pot holes,
cenotes, caves and gorges. Such
erosion landscapes are known as
karsts. Limestone is less resistant
than most igneous rocks, but
more resistant than most other
sedimentary rocks. Limestone is
therefore usually associated with
hills and downland and occurs in
regions with other sedimentary
rocks,

Special carbonate types


Chalk is a special form
of limestone and is
formed from the
skeletons of small
creatures (cocoliths).
Evaporites such as Salt
(NaCl) and Anhydrite
.
(CaSO4)
can also form
in these environments

Components deposited as discrete


grains or crystals
Contain lime mud, < 10% grains:
(Lime) Mudstone
Contain lime mud, (matrix
supported) >10% grains:
Wackestone
Contains lime mud, grain
supported: Packstone
No lime mud, grain supported:
Grainstone
original components bound
together during deposition by
framework building organisms,
encrustation or sediment
trapping mechanisms :
Boundstone
Depositional texture not
recognizable. Crystalline

Vuggy porosity is pore space that


is within grains or crystals or that
is significantly larger than grains
or crystals; that is, pore space that
is not interparticle. This definition
deviates from the restrictive
definition of vugs used by
Choquette and Pray (1970) as
nondescript, nonfabric-selective
pores, but it is consistent with the
Archie terminology and with the
widespread and less restrictive use
in the oil industry of the term
"vuggy porosity" in referring to
visible pore space in carbonate
rocks

Rock Properties
Rocks are described
by three properties:
Porosity - quantity of
pore space
Permeability- ability
of a formation to
flow
Matrix -major
constituent of the
rock

Rock Properties

Reservoir rocks need


two properties to be
successful:
Pore spaces able to
retain hydrocarbon.
Permeability which
allows the fluid to
move.

Definition of Porosity
Porosity is a measure of the
void spaces in a material,
and is a fraction of the
volume of voids over the
total volume, between 01,
or as a percentage between
0100%
It is defined by the ratio:
where VV is the v of voidspace (such as fluids) and VT
is the total or bulk volume of
material, including the solid
and void components

Porosity Sandstones
The porosity of a sandstone depends on the
packing arrangement of its grains.The system can
be examined using spheres
In a Rhombohedral packing, the pore space
accounts for 26% of the total volume.

With a Cubic packing arrangement, the pore


space fills 47% of the total volume.
In practice, the theoretical value is rarely reached
because:
a) the grains are not perfectly round, and
b) the grains are not of uniform size.

Well sorted (grains of


approximately all one size)
materials have higher porosity
than similarly sized poorly
sorted materials (where smaller
particles fill the gaps between
larger particles). The graphic
illustrates how some smaller
grains can effectively fill the
pores (where all water flow takes
place), drastically reducing
porosity and hydraulic
conductivity, while only being a
small fraction of the total volume
of the material.

Porosity and Grain Size


A rock can be made
up of small grains
or large grains but
have the same
porosity.
Porosity depends on
grain packing, not
the grain size.

Primary porosity
The main or original porosity
system in a rock or unconfined
alluvial deposit.

Secondary porosity
A subsequent or separate porosity
system in a rock, often enhancing
overall porosity of a rock. This can
be a result of chemical leeching of
minerals or the generation of a
fracture system. This can replace
the primary porosity or coexist
with it (see dual porosity below).

Macro porosity :Refers to pores


greater than 50 nm in diameter. Flow
through macropores is described by
bulk diffusion.
Meso porosity :Refers to pores greater
than 2 nm and less than 50 nm in
diameter. Flow through mesopores is
described by Knudsen diffusion.
Micro porosity :Refers to pores
smaller than 2 nm in diameter.
Movement in micropores is by
activated diffusion.

Diagenesis
The environment can also involve
subsequent alterations of the rock
such as:
Chemical changes,Diagenesis is the
chemical alteration of a rock after
burial. An example is the
replacement of some of the calcium
atoms in limestone by magnesium to
form dolomite
Mechanical changes - fracturing in a
tectonically-active region.

Carbonate porosity is very heterogeneous. It is classified


into a number of types: Intergranular porosity is called
"primary porosity".
Interparticle porosity:Each grain
is separated, giving a similar pore
space arrangement as sandstone.
Intergranular porosity:Pore space
is created inside the individual
grains which are interconnected.
Intercrystalline porosity:Produced
by spaces between carbonate
crystals.
Mouldic porosity:Pores created by
the dissolution of shells, etc.

Porosity created after deposition is called


"secondary porosity".
Fracture porosity:
Pore spacing created by the
cracking of the rock fabric.
Channel porosity:
Similar to fracture porosity but larger.
Vuggy porosity:
Created by the dissolution of
fragments, but unconnected.

POROSITAS VERSUS KEDALAMAN

Permeability Definition
The rate of flow of a liquid
through a formation depends
on:
The pressure drop,the
viscosity of the fluid and The
permeability.
The pressure drop is a
reservoir property.
The viscosity is a fluid
property.
The permeability is a measure
of the ease at which a fluid
can flow through a formation

Permeability and Rocks


Relationships exist between permeability
and porosity for given formations, although
they are not universal.
A rock must have porosity to have any
permeability.
The unit of measurement is the Darcy.
Reservoir permeability is usually quoted in
millidarcies (md).

In formations with large grains, the


permeability is high and the flow
rate larger.
In a rock with small grains the
permeability is less and the flow
lower.

Darcy Experiment

The flow of fluid of viscosity through a porous medium was first investigated in
1856 by Henri Darcy.
He related the flow of water through a unit volume of sand to the pressure
gradient across it.
In the experiment the flow rate can be changed by altering the parameters as
follows:

Darcy Law

K = permeability, in Darcies.
L = length of the section of rock, in centimetres.
Q = flow rate in centimetres / sec.
P1, P2 = pressures in bars.
A = surface area, in cm2.
= viscocity in centipoise.

PERMEABILITAS PADA
BATUAN

Relative Permeability

Take a core 100% water-saturated.


(A)
Force oil into the core until
irreducible water saturation is
attained (Swirr). (A-> C -> D)
Reverse the process: force water into
the core until the residual saturation
is attained. (B)
During the process, measure the
relative permeabilities to water and
oil.

Relative Permeability Experiment

FAKTOR YANG MEMPENGARUHI


PROPERTI RESERVOIR-1
Porosity
Effective porosity vs.
total porosity

Types:
Primary porosity
Secondary porosity
Porosity in Clastic
rocks vs Carbonate
rocks
Relationship between
porosity and
permeability

Depositional aspects:
Composition
Sorting
Rounding
Grain size
Rounding
Packing

Diagenesis:
Dewatering
Compaction
Cementation

Processes that reduce porosity


and permeability:
Compaction
Cementation
Heavy hydrocarbon residue

Processes that enhance porosity and


permeability:
Dissolution
Fracturing
Dolomitization

Carbonate rocks are often subjected to early


cementation, so reservoir quality depends very
strongly on dissolution, fracturing and
dolomitization.
Most carbonate reservoirs are due to secondary
porosity.
Reefs sometimes preserve primary porosity.

FAKTOR YANG MEMPENGARUHI


PROPERTI RESERVOIR-2

FAKTOR YANG MEMPENGARUHI


PROPERTI RESERVOIR-3

Porosity-depth plot for sandstones from two wells with different geothermal gradients (A) &
Cement (B) From Wilson, 1994a; courtesy SEPM

Porosity Frekuensi Distribution

Porosity Population Probability Distribution

High Porosity

Low Porosity

Average 13 %

Average 7%

St Dev 2%

St Dev 1%

STANDAR NORMAL DISTRIBUTION

MEAN =0
STANDAR
DEVIASI=1

ISOPOROSITY MAP

LITOFACIES PETROPHYSICS

CROSS BEDDED QUARZT


RICH CARBONATE GRAIN
STONE

ARGILACEOUS GRAIN
STONE

SKELETAL
WACKESTONE

PELOIDAL
GRAINSTONE

OOID SKELETAL
GRAINSTONE

CEMENTED OOID
SKELETAL

FRACTURE PERMEABILITY VS
FRACTURE POROSITY

PERMEABILITAS VERSUS PORE THROAT

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