Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
transmission is a
gated sinusoid or ping
of duration tp
sound pressure scattered by a small object crests of sinusoid indicated as a sequence of wave
fronts
in this sketch , dependencies of incident wave are suppressed (this would be due to source beam
pattern)
for simplicity wavefronts drawn as if coming from center of object for a complex object, as shown,
there would be many interfering wave fronts spreading from the object
within shadow, interference of incident and scattered waves is destructive as incident and scattered
waves arrive at the same time with same amplitude, but out-of-phase
outside of shadow, interference of incident and scattered waves forms a penumbra (partial shadow)
beyond penumbra ( < interfer), incident and scattered waves can be separated (no interference)
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pinc (t ) Pinc e i 2 ft , 0 t t p
, R / c t R / c tp
= 0, otherwise
= 0, otherwise
L( ,, f )
Pscat Pinc L( ,, f ) 10 R / 20 / R
Pscat ( ,, f )
R10 R / 20
Pinc
dimension area [ m2 ]
here, s, L, and Pscat all depend on the geometry of the measurement and the
carrier frequency, f, of the ping (really they depend on wavelength)
above is a bistatic representation in which source and receiver are at different
positions
when at same position (monostatic), it is called backscatter
now = 0 and = 0, and
2
s (0,0, f ) bs (f ) L(0,0, f )
differential backscattering cross-section
note that so far we have only considered the differential (and have used ) that is we have
only considered a differential portion of the total radiated power from the scattering body
this is done by looking at only a portion of the 3D surface with a finite receiver such as
shown in the schematic sketch
total scattering cross section
total scattering cross-section is the integral of s ( ,, f )
over total solid angle
or
scat is the total power scattered by the body
target strength
logarithmic measure of differential cross-section
s ( ,, f )
1m 2
TS( ,, f ) 10log
bs (f )
2
1m
TS(f ) 10log
L( ,, f )
1m
[ db ]
reference area is 1 m2
for backscatter
[ db ]
TS( ,, f ) 20log
L (f )
TS(f ) 20log bs
1m
[ db ]
[ db ]
or backscattering length
single source/receiver
pinc (t ) Pinc e i 2 ft , 0 t t p
Scattering by spheres
an acoustically small and compact non-spherical body scatters in about the same way as a
sphere of same volume and same average physical characteristics ( , c)
acoustically small ( ka << 1 ) dimensions much less than those of incident sound
wavelength
1)
2)
3)
in the Kirchoff approximation ( discussed in text) plane waves reflect from an area as if the local,
curved surface is a plane
scatter consists of a spray of reflected waves each obeying simple reflection law that is, angle of
reflection = angle of incidence
we will employ a ray solution
diffraction effects are ignored - these would come from edge of shadow and behind sphere
we will calculate the scattering from a fixed, rigid, perfectly reflecting sphere at very high
frequencies ( ka >> 1 )
incident sound is a plane wave of intensity Iinc
no energy absorption in medium
no energy penetrates surface of sphere
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adi
dSicosi
2asini
dSi
dS dSi cos i
or ,
d inc Iinc a 2 sin(2 i )d
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and
inc
Igs
Pgs
a2
a
,
or
2
Iinc 4R
Pinc 2R
Pinc
R
where
Lgs
or
Lgs
1
0.28
2
result:
scattered intensity is independent of
angle of incidence which should be
the case by symmetry of the sphere,
but is not the case in general
in the case of the sphere, this means
that all differential geometrical
scattering cross-sections, including
backscattering cross-sections, are
equal
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a2
, for ka>>
?1
4
gs 4 gs a 2 , for ka>>
? 1 , where a2 is the cross-sectional area
gs does not include the effects of diffraction, so is not the total scattering cross-section
the ray solution is deceptively simple:
is accurate in the backscatter direction 0-90
but it ignores the complicated interference patterns beyond 90
more complete calculations using wave theory indicate that the total scattering cross-section
approaches twice its geometrical cross-section (2a2) for large ka
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ka << 1
when the wavelength is large compared to the sphere radius, scatter is due solely to
diffraction. 2 simple conditions cause scatter:
1.
monopole radiation in the case that the bulk elasticity (E1) of the sphere (recall E = pA/ =
compressibility-1) is less than that of water (E0), the incident condensations and rarefactions
compress and expand the body, thereby reradiating a spherical wave phase reversed if E 1>E0
2.
dipole radiation if the spheres density ( 1) is much greater than that of the medium ( 0), the
bodys inertia will cause it to lag behind as the plane wave oscillates (sloshes back and forth).
This motion is equivalent to the water being at rest and the body being in oscillation. This motion
generates a dipole reradiation. When 1< 0, the effect is the same but the phase is reversed. In
general, when 1 0, the scattered pressure is proportional to cos , where is the angle
between scattered and incident directions.
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Pscat
2(ka )2
3
Pm Pd
1
cos
3
2
a Pinc e ikR
2
R
( ka )2
3
1 cos
3
2
(ka )4
3
2
s (f , )
1 cos a
9
2
Rayleigh
scattering
geometrical
scattering
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( ka << 1)
s (f , ) (ka )
cos
2g 1
3e
monopole component
a 2 , ka = 1
dipole component
most bodies in the sea have values of e and g close to unity and both terms are of similar
importance
bubbles
have e << 1 and g << 1
- highly compressible bodies such as bubbles are capable of resonating when ka << 1
- resonant bubbles produce scattering cross-sections several orders of magnitude greater than
geometrical
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sunrise/sunset
at low azimuth, light passes through extended range of atmosphere
blue completely scattered out and sun appears red
green flash
occurs at the very end of the sunset (beginning of sunrise, when sun has passed below horizon
shorter wavelengths refracted more effectively than longer wavelengths
blue has been scattered out, reds are not effectively refracted
whats left if green (sometimes very bright and pops up above horizon for < 1s)
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20
results
1.no signal when towed in mixed layer thus
velocity fluctuations do not contribute
21
Batchelor, 1957
(wave scattering due to turbulence Proc.Symp.Nav.Hydro.)
Goodman, 1990 (considers the bistatic or multistatic problem,
not just backscatter)
Ross etal 2004
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27
28
Lavery etal 2009
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Lavery etal 2009
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Lavery etal 2009
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Lavery etal 2010
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coordinate systems
rectangular
cylindrical
spherical
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Iscat
Iinc
Urick
note: the distinction in the definitions the volume scattering strength S v is defined by the ratio
Iscat/Iinc, each referenced to 1 m (or 1 yd) from the object
in M&C terms (that we have so far), I scat is referenced to the receiver at range R from the object
while Iinc referred to 1 m from object the inclusion of attenuation and spherical spreading (1/R 2)
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gives the length scale unit
a more complete schematic of the problem includes beam pattern of single transducer as both
source (b) and receiver (b)
( here absorption ignored )
I0 is the axial intensity at unit distance (source level SL = 10 logI0)
intensity at 1 m in direction (, ) is I0b(, )
incident intensity at dV is I0b(, )/r2
intensity backscattered at P 1 m back toward source is (I0b(, )/r2)SvdV
scattered intensity at source is (I0b(, )/r4)SvdV, where it is assumed that sound spreads
spherically from both source and object dV
receiver will produce voltage (rms) R2(I0b(, )b(, )/r4)SvdV where R is the receiver
sensitivity
total receiver output is V[(R2I0SV /r4) b(, )b(, )] dV
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