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d2 f
df
3
x 2 f xf 2 5
2
dx
dx
d2 f
df
3
x2 f 5
2
dx
dx
c 2 t 2
df
x2 f 3
dx
2
df
3
2
xf
2
x
dx
Examples:
g
Lf
where:
is the same as
is the same as
d2 f
df
3
x2 f 5
2
dx
dx
d2
d
2
x
f 5
dx 2
dx
2 f
1 2 f
2 2
2
x
c t
2
1 2
x 2 c 2 t 2 f 0
f ( x) Ae x
(where A, are constants) always reduces the differential
equation to an algebraic (ordinary) equation for .
Example:
0 Lf
0
Lf
1
2
L f1 f 2 0
Boundary conditions
A differential equation by itself does not
fully determine the unknown function f
F ma
d x F
F 2
x
(
t
)
t At B
2
dt
m
2m
z Ae
i t
A Ae
z(t=0)
|A|
Re(z)
z A ei t+
Displacement
Velocity
Acceleration
Can take real or imaginary part as physical
solution. Complex numbers are a mathematical
2 1 2
x 2 v 2 t 2
( x, t )
( x, t ) wave displacement
v wave velocity
Can we use this to describe matter waves in free space?
Try solution
x, t e
i kx t
p2
But this isnt correct! For free particles we know that E
2m
2
Try
2
t
x
( x, t ) is "wave function" associated with matter wave
x, t e
i kx t
h2 2
ih
t
2m x 2
i kx t
h2 2
t
2
m
x
2 2
h x, t
hk
x, t
2m
p2
E
V ( x, t )
2m
p2
E
2m
Total energy = KE + PE
h2 2
ih
V ( x, t )
2
t
2m x
Schrdinger
There are limits to its validity. In this form it applies only to a single, nonrelativistic particle (i.e. one with non-zero rest mass and speed much less than c)
Note the +ve sign of i in the Schrdinger equation. This came from our
it
looking for plane waves of the form : e
We could equally well have looked for solutions of the form : e it
Then we would have got a ve sign.
This is a matter of convention (now very well established).
h2 2
ih
V ( x, t )
t
2m x 2
h2 2
ih
V ( x, t )
2
t
2m x
ih
H
t
h2 d 2
2m dx 2 V ( x, t ) H
Kinetic
energy
operator
Potential
energy
operator
( x, t ) x x0
Born
x a
||2
( x , t ) dx
Example
Suppose that at some instant of time a particles wavefunction at t=0 is
( x, 0) 2 x
What is:
(a) The probability of finding
the particle between x=1.0
and x=1.001?
(b) The probability per unit
length of finding the
particle at x=1?
(c) The probability of finding
the particle between x=0 and
x=0.5?
d sin
Incoming coherent
beam of particles
(or light)
Detecting
screen
D
1 2
1 2 *1 2 1 *2
Usual particle part
Interference term
gives fringes
Normalization
Total probability for particle to be somewhere should always be one
( x, t ) dx 1
Normalization condition
A wavefunction which obeys this
condition is said to be normalized
( x , t ) dx
1
( x, t )
( x, t )
N
New wavefunction is normalized to 1
( x, t ) a 2 x 2 , a x a
( x, t ) 0,
x a
Conservation of probability
If the Born interpretation of the wavefunction is correct then the normalization
integral must be independent of time (and can always be chosen to be 1 by
normalizing the wavefunction)
( x, t ) dx constant
h
ih
V ( x, t )
2
t
2m x
2
( x, t ) dx constant
( x)
Not single valued
( x)
x
2. Have a continuous first derivative
(except at points where the potential is infinite)
Discontinuous
x
( x)
3. Have a finite normalization integral
(so we can define a normalized probability)
Gradient discontinuous
x
V x, t V ( x )
h2 2
ih
V ( x)
2
t
2m x
( x, t ) ( x)T (t )
h2 2
(
x
)
T
(
t
)
V
(
x
)
(
x
)
T
(
t
)
i
h
( x )T (t )
2
2m x
t
2
d 2
( x)T (t ) T (t ) 2
2
x
dx
h2 d 2
dT
T 2 V ( x) T ih
2m dx
dt
etc
N.B. Total not partial
derivatives now
h2 d 2
dT
T 2 V ( x ) T ih
2m dx
dt
Divide by T
h2 1 d 2
1 dT
V ( x) ih
2
2m dx
T dt
LHS depends only on x, RHS depends only on t.
True for all x and t so both sides must be a constant, A (A = separation constant)
This gives
1 dT
ih
A
T dt
h2 1 d 2
V ( x) A
2
2m dx
So we have two equations, one for the time dependence of the wavefunction
and one for the space dependence. We also have to determine the separation constant.
ih
1 dT
A
T dt
h2 1 d 2
V ( x) A
2
2m dx
dT iA
T
dt h
T (t ) ae iAt / h
T (t ) ae
iEt / h
h2 d 2
V ( x) E
2
2m dx
or
H E
( x, t ) ( x )T (t ) ( x )e iEt / h
Even though the potential is independent of time the wavefunction still oscillates in time
But probability
distribution is static
P x, t x, t * ( x )e iEt / h ( x )e iEt / h
2
( x) ( x) ( x)
*
Notes
h2 d 2
V ( x) E
2
2 m dx
H E
SE in three dimensions
To apply the Schrdinger equation in the real (3D)
world we keep the same basic structure:
ih
H
t
H E
BUT
x r x, y , z
px2 p y2 pz2
px2
p2
2m
2m
2m
h2 2
h2 2
h2 2
2
2
2 2
2
2
2m x
2m
2m x y z
Interpretation of wavefunction:
V x V r V x, y , z
d r r, t
3
r, t
probability density at r
i.e. probability per unit volume
SE in three dimensions
So 3D Hamiltonian is
2
h
H r
2 V r
2m
r, t
h2 2
ih
r, t V r, t r, t
t
2m
Time-independent Schrdinger equation is
h2 2
r V r r E r
2m
This is a linear homogeneous partial differential equation
Puzzle
The requirement that a plane wave
( x, t ) e
i ( kx t )
p2
E
2m
led us to the free-particle Schrdinger equation.
Can you use a similar argument to suggest an equation for free relativistic
particles, with energy-momentum relationship:
E 2 p 2 c 2 m0 2 c 4
SUMMARY
h2 2
V x, t ih
2
2m x
t
P x, t dx x, t dx * x, t x, t dx
2
h2 d 2
V ( x) ( x) E ( x)
2
2m dx
dx P x, t dx x, t
x, t ( x )T (t ) ( x )e iEt / h
Conditions on wavefunction
single-valued, continuous, normalizable,
continuous first derivative