Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Photonic Sources
Contents
Review of Semiconductor Physics
Light Emitting Diode (LED)
- Structure, Material,Quantum efficiency, LED Power,
Modulation
Laser Diodes
- structure, Modes, Rate Equation,Quantum efficiency,
Resonant frequencies, Radiation pattern
Single-Mode Lasers
- DFB (Distributed-FeedBack) laser, Distributed-Bragg Reflector,
Modulation
Light-source Linearity
Noise in Lasers
k B 1.38 10 23 JK -1
a) Energy level diagrams showing the excitation of an electron from the valence band to the conduction band.
The resultant free electron can freely move under the application of electric field.
b) Equal electron & hole concentrations in an intrinsic semiconductor created by the thermal excitation of
electrons across the band gap
Optical Fiber communications, 3rd ed.,G.Keiser,McGrawHill, 2000
n-Type Semiconductor
a)
b)
p-Type Semiconductor
a)
b)
Eg
2 k BT
[4-1]
n & p & ni are the electron, hole & intrinsic concentrations respectively.
pn ni
[4-2]
The pn Junction
Electron diffusion across a pn junction
creates a barrier potential (electric field)
in the depletion region.
Reverse-biased pn Junction
A reverse bias widens the depletion region, but allows minority carriers to move freely with the applied field.
Forward-biased pn Junction
Lowering the barrier potential with a forward bias allows majority carriers to diffuse across the junction.
CB
Conduction
Band (CB)
e-
Empty k
Ec
Eg
Valence
Band (VB)
h+
Ev
h
Occupied k
Ec
Ev
eh
h+
VB
/a
/a
The E-k diagram of a direct bandgap semiconductor such as GaAs. The E-k
curve consists of many discrete points with each point corresponding to a
possible state, wavefunction k(x), that is allowed to exist in the crystal.
The points are so close that we normally draw the E-k relationship as a
continuous curve. In the energy range Ev to Ec there are no points (k(x)
solutions).
1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
CB
Direct Bandgap
Ec
Eg
Indirect Bandgap, Eg
Photon
CB
Ev
kcb
VB
k
k
(a) GaAs
VB kvb
(b) Si
Ec
CB
Er
Ev
k
Ec
Phonon
Ev
VB
(c) Si with a recombination center
(a) In GaAs the minimum of the CB is directly above the maximum of the VB. GaAs is
therefore a direct bandgap semiconductor. (b) In Si, the minimum of the CB is displaced from
the maximum of the VB and Si is an indirect bandgap semiconductor. (c) Recombination of
an electron and a hole in Si involves a recombination center .
1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
( m)
1.240
E g (eV)
[4-3]
Edge-Emitting LED
n(t ) n0 e t /
[4-4]
: carrier lifetime.
dn n
dt
[4-5]
With an external supplied current density of J the rate equation for the electron-hole
recombination is:
dn(t ) J n
[4-6]
dt
qd
q : charge of the electron; d : thickness of recombination region
In equilibrium condition: dn/dt=0
J
n
qd
[4-7]
int
Rr Rnr r nr r
[4-8]
I
hcI
Pint int h int
q
q
Pint : Internal optical power,
I : Injected current to active region
[4-9]
[4-10]
ext
T ( )(2 sin )d
4 0
4n1n2
T ( ) : Fresnel Transmissi on Coefficient T (0)
(n1 n2 ) 2
If n2 1 ext
1
n1 (n1 1) 2
Pint
LED emitted optical powr, P ext Pint
n1 (n1 1) 2
[4-11]
[4-12]
[4-13]
[4-14]
Modulation of LED
P ( )
P0
[4-15]
1 ( i ) 2
p()
I()
20
log
I (0)
p
(
0
)
Electrical BW 10log
[4-16]
P( )
I ( )
Optical BW 10 log
10 log
P
(
0
)
I
(
0
)
[4-17]
LASER
(Light Amplification by the Stimulated Emission of Radiation)
Laser is an optical oscillator. It comprises a resonant optical
amplifier whose output is fed back into its input with matching
phase. Any oscillator contains:
1- An amplifier with a gain-saturated mechanism
2- A feedback system
3- A frequency selection mechanism
4- An output coupling scheme
In laser the amplifier is the pumped active medium, such as biased
semiconductor region, feedback can be obtained by placing active
medium in an optical resonator, such as Fabry-Perot structure, two
mirrors separated by a prescribed distance. Frequency selection is
achieved by resonant amplifier and by the resonators, which admits
certain modes. Output coupling is accomplished by making one of
the resonator mirrors partially transmitting.
Fabry-Perot Resonator
M1
M2
m=1
Relativeintensity
1
R~0.8
R~0.4
m=2
m
B
L
m=8
(a)
(b)
m 1
m + 1
(c)
I trans I inc
(1 R ) 2
(1 R ) 2 4 R sin 2 (kL)
[4-18]
Laser Diode
I ( z , t ) I ( z )e j (t z )
[4-19]
I ( z ) I (0) exp g (h ) (h ) z
[4-20]
n1
R1
Z=0
R2
n2
Z=L
I (2 L) I (0) R1 R2 exp g (h ) (h ) (2 L)
[4-21]
I (2 L) I (0)
exp( j 2 L) 1
[4-22]
g th
ln
2 L R1 R2
[4-23]
g th J th
: constant depends on specific device construction
[4-24]
Rate equations relate the optical output power, or # of photons per unit
volume, , to the diode drive current or # of injected electrons per
unit volume, n. For active (carrier confinement) region of depth d, the
rate equations are:
Cn Rsp
dt
ph
Photon rate stimulated emission spontaneous emission photon loss
[4-25]
dn
J
n
Cn
dt qd sp
electron rate injection spontaneous recombination stimulated emission
C : Coefficient expressing the intensity of the optical emission & absorption process
Rsp : rate of spontaneous emission into the lasing mode
0, d / dt 0, Rsp 0
1
0n
nth
C ph
[4-26]
J th nth
nth
0
J th qd
qd sp
sp
[4-27]
The solution of the rate equations [4-25] gives the steady state
photon density, resulting from stimulated emission and
spontaneous emission as follows:
ph
s
( J J th ) ph Rsp
qd
[4-28]
i ( g th )
ext
g th
q dP
dP(mW )
0.8065[ m]
E g dI
dI (mA)
Note that:
i 60% 70%;
[4-29]
exp( j 2 L) 1
Assuming
mode is:
2n
mc
m
2 Ln
2 L 2m , m 1,2,3,...
m 1,2,3,...
c
2
m m 1
2 Ln
2 Ln
[4-30]
[4-31]
( 0 )
g ( ) g (0) exp
2 2
: spectral width
[4-32]
(b)positive-index waveguide
(c)negative-index waveguide
VCSEL
2ne
B
k
[4-33]
B
1
B
(m )
2ne Le
2
2
[4-35]
Output spectrum symmetrically distributed around Bragg wavelength in an idealized DFB laser diode
ph
c
1
1 c
g th
ln
n
2 L R1 R2 n
[4-36]
1
f
2
sp ph
1
I th
1/ 2
[4-37]
t d ln
Ip
I p ( I B I th )
[4-38]
I th (T ) I z e
T / T0
Linearity of Laser
Information carrying
electrical signal s(t)
Nonlinearity
x(t)
y(t)
x(t ) A cos t
y (t ) A0 A1 cos t A2 cos 2t ...
Nth order harmonic distortion:
An
20 log
A1
Intermodulation Distortion
x(t ) A1 cos 1t A2 cos 2 t
y (t ) Bmn cos(m1 n 2 )t
m,n 0,1,2,...
m,n
Harmonics:
n 1 , m 2
Intermodulated Terms:
1 2 ,21 2 , 1 2 2 ,...
Laser Noise