Fluid mechanics?

Fluid mechanics is the science and technology of

fluids either at rest (fluid statics) or in motion
(fluid dynamics) and their effects on boundaries
such as solid surfaces or interfaces with other
fluids.

Chapter 1 : Introduction

What is a fluid?
A fluid is a substance in the gaseous or liquid form

Solid
can resist an applied shear by deforming.

Fluid
deforms continuously under applied shear.
Stress is proportional to strain rate

Stress is proportional to strain

Solid

Fluid

F

A

Chapter 1 : Introduction

F
V

A
h

What is Stress?
Stress is defined as the force
per unit area.
1. Normal component
is called normal stress
In a fluid at rest, the normal
stress is called pressure

2. Tangential component
is called shear stress

Chapter 1 : Introduction

Liquid Vs Gas

Liquids consists of closely spaced

molecules with large intermolecular
forces and takes the shape of the
container it is in. Forms a free
surface in the presence of gravity.

Gases consists of widely spaced

molecules with small intermolecular
forces. A gas expands until it
encounters the walls of the container
and fills the entire available space.
Gases cannot form a free surface

Gas and vapor are often used as

synonymous words

Chapter 1 : Introduction

Dimensions, dimensional homogeneity, and units.

Fluid characteristics can be defined qualitatively in terms of basic units such
as length , time, and mass or force (MLT or FLT system)

Chapter 1 : Introduction

Dimensions, dimensional homogeneity, and units.

All theoretically derived equations are dimensionally
homogeneous, i.e. left hand side equals right hand side
General homogeneous equations are valid in any system of
units.
Restricted homogeneous equations are valid only in a
particular system

Chapter 1 : Introduction

Systems of Units
Three systems that are commonly used in engineering are:

1. British Gravitational (BG) System

2. International System (SI)
3. English Engineering (EE) System

Chapter 1 : Introduction

Chapter 1 : Introduction

Chapter 1 : Introduction

Measures of Fluid Mass and Weight

Density:
mass per unit volume. It can widely vary between different fluids.
(i)

Liquids exhibit small variation due to change in pressure and temperature

e.g. water.

(ii)

Density of gases is strongly influenced by P & T.

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Measures of Fluid Mass and Weight

Specific Volume:
Reciprocal of density

Specific Weight:
Weight per unit volume
or density x local gravitational acceleration.
Specific Gravity:
Ratio of the density of the fluid to the density of water at 4 oC.

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11

Viscosity
Viscosity is a property that represents the internal resistance of a fluid to motion.
Consider a solid metal block of width b firmly attached to the upper and lower plate
as shown. Note that the metal block can only be deformed to a limit. The upper plate
can only move to a distance BB .

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Viscosity
Now consider what happens if the solid is replaced with a fluid such as water? When the
force P is applied to the upper plate, it will move continuously with a velocity, U as
illustrated in Fig. 1.3. This behavior is consistent with the definition of a fluidthat is, if a
shearing stress is applied to a fluid it will deform continuously. A closer inspection of the
fluid motion between the two plates would reveal that the fluid in contact with the upper
plate moves with the plate velocity, U, and the fluid in contact with the bottom fixed plate
has a zero velocity. The fluid between the two plates moves with velocity that would be
found to vary linearly, as illustrated in Fig. 1.3. Thus, a velocity gradient, is developed in
the fluid between the plates. The experimental observation that the fluid sticks to the
solid boundaries is a very important one in fluid mechanics and is usually referred to as
the no-slip condition. All fluids, both liquids and gases, satisfy this condition.

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Viscosity

Chapter 1 : Introduction

14

Viscosity

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15

Viscosity
The actual value of the viscosity depends
on the particular fluid and for a particular
fluid the viscosity is also highly dependent
on temperature as illustrated in Fig. 1.4 with
the two curves for water. Fluids for which
the shearing stress is linearly related to the
rate of shearing strain are designated as
Newtonian fluids. Newton (16421727).
Fortunately most common fluids, both
liquids and gases, are Newtonian.
The slope of the shearing stress vs rate of
shearing strain graph is denoted as the
apparent viscosity.

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Viscosity
For Newtonian fluids the apparent viscosity is the
same as the viscosity and is independent of shear
rate.
For shear thinning fluids the apparent viscosity
decreases with increasing shear ratethe harder
the fluid is sheared, the less viscous it becomes e.g.
paint application, blood, liquid plastics, etc
For shear thickening fluids the apparent viscosity
increases with increasing shear rate, the harder the
fluid is sheared, the more viscous it becomes e.g.
removal of an item from water sand mixture
(quicksand) etc.
The other type of behavior indicated in Fig. 1.5 is that of a Bingham plastic, which is
neither a fluid nor a solid. Such material can withstand a finite shear stress without
motion therefore, it is not a fluid, but once the yield stress is exceeded it flows like a
fluid hence, it is not a solid. Toothpaste and mayonnaise are common examples of
Bingham plastic materials.
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17

Viscosity
It is to be noted from this figure that the
viscosity of liquids decreases with an
increase in temperature, whereas for gases
an increase in temperature causes an
increase in viscosity.
In liquids as the temperature increases, the
cohesive forces are reduced with a
corresponding reduction in resistance to
motion
In gases as the temperature increases, the
resistance to relative motion arises due to
the exchange of momentum of gas
molecules between adjacent layers.

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Viscosity
1. Sutherland Equation (For Gases)

where C and S are empirical constants, and

T is absolute temperature.

2. Andrades Equation (For Liquids)

where D and B are empirical constants, and

T is absolute temperature.

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Viscosity
Quite often viscosity appears in fluid flow problems combined with density in the form

This ratio is called the kinematic viscosity and is denoted with the Greek symbol,

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Compressibility of Fluids
Bulk Modulus
A property that is commonly used to characterize compressibility is the bulk modulus,
Ev, defined as
where dp is the differential change in pressure needed to create a differential change
in volume, dV, of a volume, V. The negative sign is included since an increase in
pressure will cause a decrease in volume.
Since a decrease in volume of a given mass
density

Chapter 1 : Introduction

will result in an increase in

21

Compressibility of Fluids
Speed of Sound
Another important consequence of the compressibility of fluids is that the
disturbances introduced at some point in the fluid propagate at a finite velocity. The
velocity at which these small disturbances propagate is called the
acoustic velocity or the speed of sound, c.

Chapter 1 : Introduction

22

Vapor Pressure
It is a common observation that liquids such as water and gasoline will evaporate if
they are simply placed in a container open to the atmosphere. Evaporation takes
place because some liquid molecules at the surface have sufficient momentum to
overcome the intermolecular cohesive forces and escape into the atmosphere.
When a solid or a liquid evaporates to a gas in a closed container, the molecules
cannot escape. Some of the gas molecules will eventually strike the condensed
phase and condense back into it. When the rate of condensation of the gas becomes
equal to the rate of evaporation of the liquid or solid, the amount of gas, liquid and/or
solid no longer changes. The gas in the container is in equilibrium with the liquid or
solid. The pressure exerted by the gas in equilibrium with a solid or liquid in a closed
container at a given temperature is called the vapor pressure.
A liquid boils when the pressure is reduced to the vapor pressure.
The vapor pressure of water at 100oC is 1.01325 x 105 Pa

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Vapor Pressure & Cavitation

In flowing liquids it is possible for the pressure in localized regions to reach vapor
pressure.
When vapor bubbles are formed in a flowing fluid they are swept along into regions
of higher pressure where they suddenly collapse with sufficient intensity to actually
cause structural damage. The formation and subsequent collapse of vapor bubbles
in a flowing fluid, is called cavitation

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Surface Tension
At the interface between a liquid and a gas, or
between two immiscible (not forming a
homogeneous mixture when added together)
liquids, forces develop in the liquid surface which
cause the surface to behave as if it were a skin
or membrane stretched over the fluid mass e.g.
discrete water droplets will form when placed on a
newly waxed surface.
This surface phenomena is due to the unbalanced
cohesive forces acting on the liquid molecules at
the fluid surface.
The force of the molecular attraction per unit length along any line in the surface is
called the surface tension and is designated by the Greek symbol (sigma).
For a given liquid the surface tension depends on temperature as well as the other
fluid it is in contact with at the interface.

Chapter 1 : Introduction

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Surface Tension
1. Pressure Inside a Drop

The force developed around the edge due to surface tension is

This force must be balanced by the pressure difference
between the internal
pressure, and the external pressure, acting over the circular area, Thus,

or

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Surface Tension
2. Capillary Action
Among common phenomena associated with surface tension is the rise or fall of a
liquid in a capillary tube. If a small open tube is inserted into water, the water level in
the tube will rise above the water level outside the tube as is illustrated in Fig. 1.10a.

In this situation we have a liquidgassolid interface. For the case illustrated there is an
attraction (adhesion) between the wall of the tube and liquid molecules which is strong
enough to overcome the mutual attraction (cohesion) of the molecules and pull them up
the wall. Hence, the liquid is said to wet the solid surface.
Chapter 1 : Introduction

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Surface Tension

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Self Study
1. Go through all solved examples of chapter 1 and then solve all review
problems

2. Solve following problems of your text book (4th Edition):

1.2, 1.8, 1.10, 1.11, 1.17, 1.41, 1.47, 1.59, 1.61, 1.67, *1.75, 1.82, 1.84

Quiz Exam # 1 on:

25th August 2016
(Complete Chap:1)

Chapter 1 : Introduction

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Ex.1.1.A commonly used equation for determining the volume rate of flow, Q, of a
liquid through an orifice located in the side of a tank is
where A
is the area of the orifice, g is the acceleration of gravity, and h is the height of the
liquid above the orifice. Investigate the dimensional homogeneity of this formula.

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. Ex:1.2

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Ex:1.3

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Ex:1.4

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Chapter 1 : Introduction

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Ex:1.5

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Ex:1.8

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