ANGULAR MOTION

 4.1 FORCES ON A CURVED PATH

4.2 A RUNNER ON A CURVED TRACK
4.3 PENDULUM
4.4 WALKING
4.5 PHYSICAL PENDULUM
4.6 SPEED OF WALKING AND RUNNING
4.7 ENERGY EXPENDED IN RUNNING
TYPES OF JOINT MOVEMENT

 TO PROVIDE AN ADDITIONAL FORCE.

A CENTRIPETAL FORCE MUST BE PROVIDED BY FRICTIONAL FORCE
BETWEEN THE ROAD AND THE TIRES.
THE CAR BEGINS TO SKID ON THE CURVE WHEN THE CENTRIFUGAL
FORCE IS GREATER THAN THE FRICTIONAL FORCE.

BACK

As the runner rounds the curve, she

leans
toward the center of rotation (Fig. 4.2a)
Her foot, as it
makes contact with the ground, is
subject to the two forces, shown in
Fig. 4.2b:
an upward force W, which supports
her weight, and a centripetal reaction
force
Fcp, which counteracts the
centrifugal force.

BACK

Since the limbs of animals are pivoted at the joints, the

swinging motion of
animals is basically angular. Many of the limb movements in
walking and
running can be analyzed in terms of the swinging movement
of a pendulum.
BACK

Some aspects of walking can be analyzed in terms of the

simple harmonic
motion of a pendulum. The motion of one foot in each step
can be considered
as approximately a half-cycle of a simple harmonic motion
BACK

The simple pendulum shown in Fig. 4.3 is not an adequate

representation of
the swinging leg because it assumes that the total mass is located at
the end
of the pendulum while the pendulum arm itself is weightless. A more
realistic
model is the physical pendulum, which takes into account the

Speed of Walking and Running

In the analysis of walking and running, the leg may be
regarded as a physical
pendulum with a moment of inertia of a thin rod pivoted at
one end. The
moment of inertia I for the leg (see AppendixA) is, therefore,

BACK

BACK

In our treatment of walking and running we considered only the

pendulum like
motion of the legs. A more detailed treatment considers also the
motion
of the center of mass. A way to model the center of mass motion in
walking
is to consider the motion of the center of mass during the course of
a step.

As shown in the figure, the energy consumed per distance

traveled increases at both lower and higher walking
speeds. For speeds typically less than 2 m/sec (4.5
mile/h) walking is more efficient than running (that is
requiring less energy per distance traveled). Past this
speed most people will spontaneously break into a run
consuming less energy.

BACK

Carrying Loads

Carrying a load requires energy. Measurements have

shown that for most humans, as well animals such as
dogs, horses and rats, the energy expended at a given
walking speed increases directly with the weight of the
load being carried. Specifically, carrying a load that is 50%
of the body weight increases the energy consumption by
50%. For most people this added energy expenditure is
the same whether they carry the load on their backs or on
their heads.

BACK

Types of joint movements

Flexion
Bending parts at a joint so that the
angle between them decreases and
the parts come closer together
(bending the knee).
Extension
Straightening parts at a joint so that
the angle between them increases
and the parts move farther apart
(straightening the knee).

Adduction
Moving a part toward the midline
(returning the upper limb from the
horizontal position to the side of the
body).
Abduction
Moving a part away from the midline
(lifting the upper limb horizontally to
form a right angle with the side of the
body).

Elevation
Raising a part (shrugging the
shoulders).
Depression
Lowering a part (drooping the
shoulders).

Supination
Turning the hand so that the palm is
upward or facing anteriorly (in
anatomical position).
Pronation
Turning the hand so that the palm is
downward or facing posteriorly (in
anatomical position).

Rotation
Moving a part around an axis
(twisting the head from side to side).

Circumduction
Moving a part so that its end follows a
circular path (moving a finger in a
circular motion without the the hand).

Protraction
Moving a part forward (thrusting the
head forward).
Retraction
Moving a part backward (pulling the
head backward).

Dorsiflexion
Movement at the ankle that brings
the foot farther from the shin
(walking or standing on toes).
Plantar flexion
Movement at the ankle that brings
the foot farther from the shin
(walking or standing on toes).

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