LOGO

ERT 246 HYDROLOGY &

WATER RESOURCES
ENGINEERING

DISCHARGE
MEASUREMENT

Stud
y !!!

Ms Siti Kamariah Bt Md Saat

School of Bioprocess Engineering
1
sitikamariah@unimap.edu.my

DISCHARGE/STREAMFLOW
MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUE

Streamflow and Measurement

The character, amount, and timing of
discharge from a basin tells a lot about
flow paths within the basin.
Stream flow is one of the most important
topics in engineering hydrology because it
directly relate to water supply, flood
control, reservoir design, navigation,
irrigation, drainage, water quality, and
others.

Need for Stream flow Measurements

Floodplain management
Flood forecasting & analysis
Reservoir operations
Low flows water quality concerns
Design structures culverts, bridges,
storm water systems
Evaluate changes in land use on
watersheds and/or changes in climatic
regimes

Floods

Need for Streamflow Measurements

Important to hydrogeologist to identify
how to create stream hydrographs from
discharge measurements

Measurement of discharge
Method used depends on type of study,
size of river and flow, data requirements,
etc.
Streamflow measurement techniques can
be broadly classified into 2 categories:
Direct determination area-velocity method,
dilution techniques, electromagnetic method,
ultrasonic method
Indirect determination hydraulic
structures, slope-area method

Streamflow Measurements
Serves as the basis for many water
resources engineering designs
Three approaches
Measurement of water stage (water level)
Measurement of flow velocity
Hydraulic Structure

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Cont

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Streamflow Measurements
Measurement of Water Stage
Water stage: the elevation above some arbitrary
datum of water surface at a station
Types of Gages Measuring River Stage:

Staff gage vertical or inclined

Suspended weight gage
Recording gage (automatic data logger)
Crest stage gage ( used to indicate high water mark)

Pressure sensor
Float

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Figures of Stream Gauges

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Stream gauges

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Streamflow Measurements
Measurement of Flow Velocity
Current meter
Dilution
Manning Equation
Floats: Suitable for straight channel, V = L/T

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Current Meters

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Discharge (Q) Measurement

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Area-Velocity
Method

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Measuring
Streamflow in
small streams
with a pygmy
current meter

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Discharge (Q)
Measurement

Large
rivers
from
bridges or
boats

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Current Meter Method

3 types of current meter
Propeller type : for high discharge
Price type using anemometer
Electromagnetic type : for low river flow
Rating curve for current meter is given by:
V = a + bN
where V = flow velocity;
a = starting velocity to overcome mechanical friction;
b = equipment calibration constant;
N = revolutions/sec.

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For river velocity measurement, we need:

Wading/Paddle
Bridges
Boat
Cablecar
Cableway

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Velocity-Area Method
Mostly/frequently used
River cross-section determined
Velocity measured using
Float (for straight channel)
Current meter
Vertical velocity measured at 0.2d and
0.8d if depth,d >0.6m. If d<0.6m,
velocity measured at 0.6dm.

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Velocity-Area Method
Q = [Velocity x Area]
Need to know width of channel (w), Depth of
channel (d), and Velocity of flow (V) (ft/s or m/s)
Area = w x d
Because depth & velocity vary across a
channel:
(1)Important to divide the channel into manageable
segments (slices); Typically use 10-20 segments
(2)For each segment measure depth, width and
velocity

Measuring Streamflow
Discharge

27

Procedure: at each segment measure

depth then velocity

If Depth < 0.6m, take one reading @ 60%

depth
If Depth > 0.6m take 2 measurements and
compute the average
One @ 20% depth
One @ 80% depth
Average the two readings

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Measuring Streamflow Discharge

Two method of measurement
Mean section method
Mid section method

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Mean section
Q qi
VA
vi 1 vi d i 1 d i

*
(bi bi 1 )
2
2

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Mid section
Q qi
bi 1 bi 1
(
) vi d i
2

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Example Calculation:
Find the Q for this case:
V = 0.25 N + 0.05
Where V= velocity (m/s)
N = number of revolution/s
a) Using mean-section method
b) Using mid-section method

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Example Calculation:
Distance
from edge,
b (m)

Depth, d
(m)

1.1

Rev/min
0.6d

0.2d

0.8d

2.6

48

44

4.0

57

52

7.2

43

37

10

4.3

38

32

12

3.2

36

29

14

1.6

15.5

14

12

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Mean-section method
Velocity (m/s)
b

0.6d

0.2d

1.1

2.6

0.250

4.0

0.8d

Vavg

(Vi+
Vi+1)/2

0.108

0.054

1.1

0.242

0.175

3.7

0.288

0.278

0.260

6.6

7.2

0.229

0.216

0.247

11.2

10

4.3

0.208

0.196

0.206

11.5

12

3.2

0.200

0.186

0.191

7.5

14

1.6

0.100

0.143

4.8

15.5

0.000

0.050

1.2

0
0.108

0.100

0.233

Q = 9.736 m3/s

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Mid-section method
Velocity (m/s)
b

0.6d

0.2d

1.1

2.6

0.250

4.0

0.8d

Vavg

(bi+1bi-1)/2

qi

0
0.108

0.108

0.242

0.288

0.278

7.2

0.229

0.216

10

4.3

0.208

0.196

12

3.2

0.200

0.186

14

1.6

0.100

1.75

15.5

0.100

0.233

0.000
Q = 9.986 m3/s

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Dilution gauging
Using tracer/chemical at upstream
For uneven stream base, good method for
turbulent streams
Q can be determined by tracer quantity and
concentration at upstream and downstream (after
dilution) using mass transfer equation.
need to use tracer that is a) easily soluble, b) have
no or very low natural concentrations in stream, c)
be conservative, d) easily detectable at low
concentrations, e) ecofriendly, f) affordable

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Dilution gauging
Example of tracer:
Chemical: Sodium cloride,sodium
dicromat,manganese sulphate
Dye: sodium fluoroscein, Rhodamine-WT
Radioactive: Bromine-82,Sodium-24,Iodine132
2 method
Sudden/Gulp injection
Constant rate injection

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Dilution gauging: Constant Rate Injection

C1q
C2
qQ
q Q q Q
C1
C2 .q
Q
C1
Q
.q
C2

C1,q
C2(q+Q)
Q

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Example calculation
20 g/L of tracer injected at upstream of the river
at rate 0.01 L/s. Concentration of tracers at
downstream is 5 ppb. Estimate the discharge of
the river at downstrean. Assume the initial
concentration of tracer is very low.

Solution:
q =0.01 L/s = 10-5 m3/s
C1 = 20 g/L = 20 000 g/m3
C2 = 5 ppb = 5 x 10-6 g/L = 5 x 10-3 g/m3
Q = C1/C2 x q = (20 000/5 x 10-3 )x 10-5
= 40 m3/s = 40 000 L/s

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Conversion factor
1 g/L = 10-3
1 mg/L = 10-6 = 1 ppm
1 g/L = 10-9 = 1 x 10-3 g/m3 = 1 ppb

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Dilution gauging: Sudden Injection

C1,V1
C2, Q2
Q
t2

VC1 Q C2 dt
t1

Where:
V = volume of tracers (m3)
t1=time of tracer induced at upstream(point 1)
t2=time of tracer detected at point 2

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Example Calculation:
100 liter NaCL at concentration 10 g/L induced at
river upstream. Average NaCl concentration after
an hour at 800 m distance, at downstream are
0.02 mg/L. Estimate the river discharge at
downstream.
Solution:
t2

VC1 Q C2 dt
t1

VC1 QC2 t
VC1
0.1x10
3
Q

13
.
89
m
/s
5
C2 t 2 x10 x 3600

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Sonic methods

- Measure speed of small particles in the flow

- Can also track and subtract bottom speed

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Some gages are designed to measure just high flows

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Hydraulic Structures
Used for small watersheds such as
experimental watersheds where need
accurate, continuous flow measurements.
Two types:
Weirs
Flumes

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Weirs
Obstruct flow and
force it through a
notch
Stage-Q
relationship
established
mathematically
for different types
of notches

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Weirs
Generally used in small streams
Various types
V-notch for accurate low flow
Rectangular
Handles higher flows
Less accurate at low flows

Trapezoidal -- an intermediate weir

Concerns
Sediment & debris are trapped
Leakage

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Trapezoidal Weir

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Trapezoidal Weir

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Rectangular Weir

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90 degree V-notch Weir

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V-notch Weir
For small river
Q (m3/s) can be determine using
equation:

8
52
Q

15

Cd 2 g tan

Where:
H = head loss
Cd = discharge coefficient
g gravity acceleration
angle of the v-notch

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90 V-notch Weir

Q = 2.36CdH5/2

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Flumes
An artificial open channel built to contain flow
within a designed cross-section and length
No impoundment
Water height in flume measured with a stilling
well

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Flumes
Used to measure flow in:
water and wastewater treatment plants
irrigation channels
agricultural runoff
runoff plots research applications
small watersheds

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Large Crest Flumes

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Long-throated Flume

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Short-throated Flume

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Parshall Flume

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H Flume

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Slope Area Method

Manning Equation
Chezy Equation

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Estimating Discharge (Q) from channel features:

Mannings Equation

1 2 3 12
v R S
n
v = average velocity (m/s)
R = hydraulic radius
= [Area/wetted perimeter]
S = Energy gradient, Approximated by water surface slope
n = Mannings roughness coefficient

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Chezy Equation
Based on Chezy formula,

Q AC RS
with A = flow cross-section area; C = Chezy
Coefficient; R = hydraulic radius, A/P; and S =
channel slope.
For a given section, C S = constant whereas for a
wide channel (W>10D) RD. Therefore,

QKA D

K
1

A D

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Thank You

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