ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY

(BHS105)

TOPIC 5:
SKELETAL
SYSTEM
PREPARED BY: ZAKARIA BIN ISMAIL
PHONE NO: 011-12537244

Learning outcomes
At the end of this lecture, student should be able to;
1. Describe tissues and organs of the skeletal system
2. Describe histology of osseous tissue ,bone development and physiology of osseous
tissue.
3. Explain overview of the skeleton including skull, vertebral column and thoracic cage,
upper limb and lower limb.
4. Describe joint based on classification, structure and functions

Introduction
Skeletal system: the framework of bones and cartilage that protects our
organs and allows us to move.
Each bone is an individual organ.
It consists of 206 individual bones in the adult.
Tissues associated with bones:
- Bone tissues
-Cartilage

-Adipose tissue
-Nervous tissue

-Dense connective tissue

-Epithelium
-Blood

Function of skeletal system

1- Support:
- skeleton provide framework for body
- Support and stabilized surrounding tissues such as
muscles, blood vessels, nerves, fat and skin.
- Provide attachment for skeletal muscles

2-Protection:
- Internal organs protected from injury
- E.g. Brain protected by cranial bones, heart and
lungs by ribs and sternum, vertebral column encases &
protects the spinal cord.

3- Movement:
- Skeletal muscles attached to bones
- Muscles contract- pull bones-movement

4-Mineral storage and homeostasis:

- Bones store several mineral ( calcium, phosphorus), that can be
distributed to other parts of body (as demand)
- If the blood calcium level below normal, the bone releases the
necessary amount of stored calcium into the bloodstream.
- when calcium levels exceed normal, calcium release from the
skeletal system is inhibited. The skeletal system helps to maintain
blood calcium homeostasis.

5- Site of blood cell production:

- In certain bones, a connective tissue ( red bone marrow) produced blood cells
hemopoiesis
- Red bone marrow- consist of immature blood cells, adipose cells and

macrophages.

- Found in cancellous or spongy bones.

- In developing bones, adult bones (pelvic, ribs, backbones, skull, end of arm bones,

etc)

6- Storage of energy:
- Lipids stored in cells of yellow bone marrow :
important chemical energy reserve
- Yellow bone marrow: composed mostly adipose
tissue, few blood cells

Parts of long bone

Include:
- Diaphysis (shaft/body)

cover by periosteum

The long, main cylindrical portion of the bone

- Epiphyses (ends/ above and below)

The ends of bone

a) Metaphysis
- In mature bone, region where the diaphysis joints the epiphysis
- In growing bone, region that contains a layer of hyaline cartilage called
epiphyseal (growth) plate ( site where bone growth in length occurs)
b) Articular cartilage
- A thin of hyaline cartilage covering epiphysis where bone forms an articulation
with another bone
- Cartilage reduces friction and adsorbs shock at freely movable joint.
c)

Periosteum
- Tough white fibrous membrane
- Around the surface of bone not covered by articular cartilage
- consist of dense, irregular connective tissues, blood vessels and nerves, various type of
bone cells
- Necessary for protection, nutrition, growth in diameter, repair of bones and site of
attachment for ligament and tendons.

d) Medullary (marrow) cavity

- Central part of a structure
- The space within a diaphysis that contain fatty yellow bone marrow in adults
e) Endosteum
- The lining of medullary cavity
- Consists of osteoprogenitor cells and osteoclasts

Structure and histology of bones

Bone tissues consist of widely separated cell surrounded by large amounts of matrix
( intercellular substance).
Four principle types of cells:
- osteoprogenitor cells
- osteoblasts
- osteocytes
- osteoclasts
Matrix contains: collagen fibers (organic) and mineral salts (mainly calcium phosphateinorganic)

Compact (dense) bone tissue:

- Consist of osteons (haversian systems) with little space between them.
- lies over spongy bone
- Composes most of bone tissue of diaphysis
- Function: compact bone protect, supports and resists stress.

 Spongy (cancellous) bone tissue:

- Consists of trabeculae surrounding many red bone marrow-filled spaces
- It forms most of the structure of short, flat, irregular bones and epiphyses of long bones.
- Function: stores some red and yellow bone marrow and provide support.

Compact bone
The harversian system
An english physician, Clopton Havers (1650-1702), first described the histologic features
of compact bone.
Harversian canals or osteons are small canals.Containing blood vessels parallel to the
surface of compact bone, surrounded by concentric rings of solid bone called lamellae.
In these rings are cavities called lacunae-contains an osteocyte bathed in fluid.
Lacunae connected to one another, to osteons by smaller canal canaliculi
Tissue fluid circulated in these canals carriers nutrients and O2-away from bone cells.

Cancellous bone
Spongy bone
Consists of a meshwork of bone-trabeculae
Trabeculae create the spongy appearance
Space between trabeculae are filled with bone
marrow

Bone marrow
2 types:
- RBM:
- function: hematopoiesis
-In an adult : the ribs, vertebrae, sternum & pelvis
- YBM:
- stores fat cell
-In shafts of long bones within their cancellous

tissue.

Bone formation
After 3 months, fetal skeleton completely formed, primarily made of cartilage
Ossification and growth of bone then develop.
Longitudinal growth of bone continues until approximately 15 years of age in girls and 16
in boys.
Bone maturation continuous until 21 years.

Bone formation
Bone forms by a process called ossification
2 types of ossification:
- Intramembranous
- Endochondral
Involve replacement of the preexisting
connective tissue with bone.

Deposition of the bone

Bone develops from spindle-shaped embryonic bone cells called osteoblast.
Osteoblasts develop into mature bone cells: osteocytes. They form under fibro vascular
membrane covering bone called periosteum, and under the membrane lining of medullary
cavity called endosteum.
The more strain or pressure on a bone, the more the bone develop.
Osteoclasts are large cells, responsible for reabsorption of injured bone. Also reabsorb
bone during remodeling.

 Intramembranous ossification:
- Within fibrous (dense) connective tissue membranes of the embryo and the
adult.
- Replaced by deposits of inorganic calcium salts.
- Bones of cranium form in this way.

Endochondral ossification:
Within a cartilage model .
All other bones develop in this way.
Primary ossification center of a long bone is in diaphysis
-Cartilage degenerates, leaving cavity that merge to form medullary cavity
-Osteoblasts lay down bone
Next, occur in epiphyses
- Bone replace cartilage, except articular cartilage and epiphyseal plate

Bone growth
Because of activity of the epiphyseal plate, the diaphysis of a bone increases in length.
Bone grows in diameter as a result of the addition of new bone tissue around the outer
surface of the bone.

Bones and homeostasis

Homeostasis of bone growth and development depends on a balance between bone
formation and reabsorption.
Bone remodeling:
- Old bone constantly destroyed by osteoclasts.
- New bone is constructed by osteoblasts.
Normal growth depends on minerals, vitamins and hormones
- Minerals( calcium, phosphorus, magnesium)
- vitmains (D,C,A)
- Hormones (human growth hormone, sex hormones, thyroid hormones,
calcitonin and parathyroid hormone)

 Under mechanical stress, bone increases in mass- bone tissue becomes stronger.
Bone store and release calcium and phosphate-controlled by calcitonin and PTH.
Important mechanical stress result from the pull of skeletal muscles and the pull of
gravity.
With aging, bone , loses calcium and organic matrix.

Maintaining bone
Correct amount of calcium stored in bones.
The proper amount of calcium in the blood and the excretion of excess
calcium is controlled by endocrine systems.
The parathyroid gland secrete parathyroid hormone causes calcium to
be released into bloodstream.
Another hormone calcitonin causes calcium stored in bone.

Division of the skeleton system

Skull
Consists of cranium and the face
Sutures are immovable joints between bones of the skull. E.g. coronal, sagittal, labroid,
squamous sutures.
Eight cranial bones:
- frontal
-parietal
-temporal
-occipital
-sphenoid
-ethmoid

14 facial bones:
- Nasal
-Maxillae
-Zygomatic
-Mandible
-Lacrimal
-Palatine
-Inferior nasal conchae
-vomer

 Paranasal sinuses:
- cavities in bones of the skull that communicate with nasal cavity
-Lined by mucous membranes
-Cranial bones containing paranasal sinuses:
- frontal
-sphenoid
-ethmoid
-maxillae

- Fontanels are membrane-filled spaces between the cranial

bones of fetuses and infants.
- Major fontanels:
- anterior
- Posterior
- Anterolaterals
- Posterolaterals
- Foramina of the skull bones provide passages for nerves and
blood vessels.

Vertebral column
Bones of the adult vertebral column:
- cervical vertebrae (7)

- Thoracic vertebrae (12)

- Lumbar vertebrae (5)
- Sacrum (5, fused)
- Coccyx (4, fused)
Vertebral column contains normal curves
that give strength, support and balance.

 Vertebrae are similar in structure

Each consisting:
- body
- Vertebral arch
- seven processes
Vertebrae in different regions of the column vary in
size, shape and detail.

Thorax
Thoracic skeleton consists of:
- sternum
- Ribs
- Coastal cartilage
- Thoracic vertebrae
Thoracic cage protects vital organs in the
chest area

 Sternum :
- breastbone
- develops in three parts (looks like a sword)
-(i) manubrium handle
-(ii) gladiolus (body) like blade
-(iii) xiphoid process tip

 Ribs :
12 pairs
Upper 7 pairs articulate directly with sternum (true ribs)
Lower 5 pairs (false ribs) 11th and 12th no coastal cartilage to articulate like 8th, 9th , and
10th (floating ribs)

Upper limb
Bones of each upper limb:
- Humerus
- Ulna
- Radius
- Carpals
- Metacarpals
- Phalanges

Lower limb
Bones of lower limb:
- Femur
- Patella
- Tibia
- Fibula
-Tarsals
- Metatarsals
- Phalanges
Bones of the foot are arranged in 2 arches, the longitudinal arch and
transverse arch to provide support and leverage.

Joint

Introduction to joint
An articulation (joint) is a point of contact between bones, between cartilages and bones
or between teeth and bones.
Articulation = form a joint
Joints structure determines how its functions
Some joint permit no, slight and fairly free movement.

Movement determined by:

How loose the fitted joint
The structure (shape) of articulating bones
The flexibility of the connective tissue that binds the bones together- may
by hormone (relaxin)
The position of association ligaments, muscles and tendons.

affected

Classification of joints

Structural classification
Functional classification

Structural classification

Fibrous joints
If there is no synovial cavity and
bones are held together by fibrous
connective tissue

Cartilaginous joints
If there is no synovial cavity and the bones are
held together by cartilage

Synovial joints
If there is a synovial cavity and bones forming the
joint are united by a surrounding articular capsule
and frequently accessory ligaments.

Functional classification
Based on the degree of movement permitted.
Joint are classified as:
- synarthroses (immovable joint)
- Amphiarthroses ( a slightly movable joint)
- Diarthroses (freely moveable joint)

Synarthrosis joints
An immovable joint
3 examples:
- Suture: joint in which bones are joined by a thin layer of fibrous connective tissue. E.g.:
sutures of the skull.
- Syndesmosis : joint in which bones are connected by ligaments between bones .E.g:
radius and ulna; tibia and fibula.
- Gomophosis: a conical prosess in a socket held together by ligamants, E,g tooth in its
socket

Amphiathrosis joint
A slightly movable joint
2 examples:
- Symphasis: joint in which bones are joined by a disk of fibrocartilage, as in pubic
symphysis.
- Synchondrosis: joint where two bony surface joined by hyaline cartilage. E.g. growth
plate between diaphysis and epiphysis of a long bone.

Diarthrosis joint
Freely movable joint
Synovial joint
Characterized by having a capsular structure with an internal cavity.
Capsule of the joint can be made up of a number of different kinds of tissues:
- Fibrous cartilage
- Ligaments
- Tendons
- Muscle

SUMMARY
Bones are classified as long, short, flat, or irregular shapes.
Bone form by a process called ossification. Bone formation start to occur at embryo
stage.
Normal bone growth depends on minerals (calcium, phosphorus, magnesium),
vitmains (A,C and D), and hormones (human growth hormone, insulin, thyroid
hormone, sex hormones and parathyroid hormone).
Function of skeletal system includes; bear weight and allow movements, Ligaments ,
tendons, muscles and articular cartilage provide stability, and synovial fluid lubricates
surfaces and nourishes the cartilage.
Upper limb bone consist of ulna, radius, carpals, metacarpals, phalanges, humerus.
Lower limb bone consist of tibia, fibula, femur, tarsal, metatarsals, phalanges.

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