SKELETAL

SYSTEM
BONES AND JOINTS

By NGM
 SKELETAL SYSTEM
 BONES
 CARTILAGE
 TENDONS
 LIGAMENTS
The Skeletal System
 FUNCTIONS OF THE
SKELETAL SYSTEM
 Support- Cartilage provides a model for bone
formation and growth, provides a smooth cushion
between adjacent bones and provides
firm,flexible support.
 Protection- It protects organs it surrounds
 Movement- Skeletal muscles attach to bones by
tendons, which are strong bands of connective
tissue. Contraction of the skeletal muscles
moves the bones, making body moves.
 Storage- Some minerals in the blood are taken
into bone and stored. Should blood levels
decrease, the minerals are released from bone
into the blood. Calcium and phosphorous are the
principal mineral.Fat is also stored in the bone
cavities.
 Blood cell production- Bone marrow gives rise
to blood cell and platelets.
 Connective Tissue
1. Connective tissue consists of matrix and
the cells that produce matrix.
2. Varying amounts of collagen,
proteoglycans, and mineral in matrix
determine the characteristics of the
connective tissue.
 Types of Bones
 According to shape
Long
Short
Flat
Irregular
Sesamoid (develops w/in a tendon or a joint capsule)
 Long Bone
(a) Young long bone (femur) showing (b) Adult long bone w/ epiphyseal lines.
epiphysis, epiphyseal plates &
diaphysis.
(c) Internal features of a portion of the diaphysis in (a).
 General Features of Bone
Consists of :
1. Shaft called diaphysis (growing between)
2. Epiphyses (ends)
3. Epiphyseal plates ( growth plates)
 General Features
 Medullary Cavity – cavities big and small filled
with either yellow or red marrow.
 Marrow soft tissue in the medullary cavities of
the bone
 Red bone marrow consists of blood-forming
cells and is the only site of blood formation in
adults
 Periosteum ( around the bone) covers the bone
made of dense connective tissue ( nerves and
blood vessels)
 General Considerations
 Endosteum – thinner connective tissue
membrane that lines surface of the medullary
cavity ( has osteoblasts )
 Osteoblasts are bone forming cells for repair,
growth and remoding
 Lamellae- thin sheets of extracellular matrix
made of ostocytes or bone cells found in the
hollow spaces called lacunae
 Canaliculi- or small canal are places where
cell process extend
Types of Bones According to
Histological Structure
 Compact Bone
 Cancellous bone
 Compact Bone
 Compact bone tissue consists of osteons
or haversian canals.

 Osteons consist of osteocytes organized

into lamellae surrounding central canals.
 (a) Fine structure of a compact bone.
(b) Photomicrograph of compact bone.
 Cancellous Bone or
Spongy Bone
 Consists of trabeculae without central canals.
 Also called spongy bones because of its
appearance is located mainly in the epiphyses
of long bones, and it forms the interior of all
other bones.
 No blood vessels but nutrients are carried
through canaliculi by diffusion
 Cancellous Bone
(a) Beams of bone, the trabeculae, surround spaces in the bone. In life, the
spaces are filled w/ red or yellow bone marrow & w/ blood vessels.
(b) Transverse section of trabecula.
 Bone Ossification
(Formation of Bone)
 Bone ossification is either intramembranous or
endochondral.
 Ossification if bone formation by osteoblasts.
 Intramembranous ossification occurs within
connective tissue membranes.
 Endochondral ossification occurs within
cartilage.
 Bone Formation- Intramembranous ossification occurs in a 12-week-old
fetus at ossification centers in the flat bones of the skull (yellow).
Endochondral ossification occurs in the bones forming the inferior part of the
skull (blue).
 Bone Growth
 Bone growth occurs by a position.
Bone elongation occurs at the
epiphyseal plate as chondrocytes
proliferate, hypertrophy, die and are
replaced by bone.
 Bone Remodelling
 This consists of removal o existing bone
by osteoclasts an deposition of new bone
by osteoblasts.
 Bone Repair
 During bone repair, cells move into the
damaged area and form a callus, which
is replaced by bone
Bone Repair
 Calcium Homeostasis
1. Osteoclasts break down bone and release
calcium into the blood, and osteoblasts remove
calcium from the blood to make bone. PTH
regulates blood calcium levels by indirectly
stimulating osteoclast activity, resulting in
increased calcium release into the
blood.Calcitonin plays a minor role in calcium
maintenance by inhibiting osteoclast activity
2. In the kidneys, PTH increases calcium
reabsorption from urine. PTH forms Vit D
increasing calcium reabsorption in SI.
Calcium Homeostasis
General Considerations of
Bone Anatomy
 206 bones
 Foramen – hole in the bone or

foramina (pl)
 If the bone is elongated it is called a
canal or a meatus.
 Fossa- depression in the bone
 Lump on a bone is called a tubercle or
tuberosity and a projection is called a
process.
 Surface Anatomy
 Branch of medical science which is a study
of the external surface of the body. It also
concerns the internal organs as they relate
to external surface landmarks and as they
are seen or felt by the through the skin.
 Palpation (touching) is feeling external
structures through the skin with the fingers.
 List of Bones
 Axial Skeleton  Appendicular
1. Skull Skeleton
2. Vertebral column 1. Pectoral Girdle
3. Thoracic cage 2. Upper Limb
3. Pelvic Girdle
4. Lower Limb
AXIAL SKELETON
The axial skeleton includes
the skull, vertebral column,
and thoracic cage.
 Skull
1. It consists of 22 bones; 8 forming the
braincase, & 14 facial bones. The hyoid bone
& auditory ossicles are associated with the
skull.
2. From a lateral view, the parietal, temporal &
sphenoid bones can be seen.
3. From a frontal view, the orbits & nasal cavity
can be seen, as well as associated bones &
structures, such as the frontal bone, zygomatic
bone, maxilla & mandible.
4. The interior of cranial cavity contains
three fossae with several foramina.
5. Seen from below, the base of the skull
reveals numerous foramina & other
structures, such as processes of muscle
attachment.
Lateral View of the Skull
(a) Seen form the front. (b) Bony landmarks of the face.
 Paranasal Sinuses
(a) Frontal View (b) Anterior View
Floor of the Cranial Cavity
Base of the Skull
 Vertebral Column
1. It contains vertebra 7 cervical bone, 12
thoracic, & 5 lumbar vertebrae, plus 1
sacral & 1 coccygeal bone.

2. Each vertebra consists of a body, an

arch & processes.
3. Regional differences in vertebrae are as
follows: cervical vertebrae have long
spinous processes & attachment sites for
the ribs; lumbar vertebrae have
rectangular transverse & spinous
processes, & the position of their facets
limit rotation; the sacrum is a single,
fused bone; the coccyx is four or fewer
fused vertebrae.
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Vertebra
Regional Differences in Vertebrae
Vertebral Column Damage:
Ruptured Disk
 Defects of the Vertebral
Column
1. Kyphosis (Hunchback)- an abnormal
curvature of the spine, mostly in upper
thoracic region, resulting in hunchbak
condition.
2. Lordosis (Curving Forward)- an
abnormal curvature of the spine, mainly
in the lumbar region , resulting the
swayback condition.
3. Scoliosis- an abnormal lateral curvature
of the spine.
Sacrum
 Thoracic Cage
1. The thoracic cage consists of thoracic
vertebrae, ribs & sternum.
2. There are 12 pairs of ribs: 7 true ribs & 5
false ribs (2 of the false ribs are also
called floating ribs).
3. The sternum consists of the manubrium,
body & xyphoid process.
Thoracic Cage
 APPENDICULAR SKELETON
The appendicular skeleton consists of the
bones of the upper & the lower limbs &
girdle.
 Pectoral Girdle

The pectoral girdle includes the scapulae &

clavicles.
 Upper Limb
It consists of the arm (humerus), forearm
(ulna & radius), wrist (8 carpal bones), &
hand (5 metacarpals, 3 phalanges in each
finger, & 2 phalanges in the thumb).
Bones of the Pectoral Girdle &
Upper Right Limb
Right Scapula & Clavicle
Right Humerus
Right Ulna & Radius
Posterior View of Bones of the Right
Wrist & Hand
 Pelvic Girdle
It is made up of the two coxae. Each coxa
consists of an ilium, ischium & pubis. The
coxae, sacrum & coccyx form the pelvis.
Bones of the Pelvic Girdle
Anterior View of the Complete Pelvis
 Coxa
(a) R coxa, lateral view. (b) R coxa, medial view.
 Lower Limb
The lower limb includes the thigh (femur),
leg (tibia & fibula), ankle (7 tarsals), & foot
(metatarsals & phalanges, similar to the
bones in the hand).
Right Femur & Patella
Right Tibia & Fibula (Anterior View)
Bones of the Right Foot
 ARTICULATIONS
 An articulation or joint is a place where
bones come together.
 A joint is usually considered movable, but
not always the case.
 Many joints exhibit limited movement, &
others are completely, or almost
completely immovable.
 Synarthrosis (nonmovable joint),
Ampiarthrosis (slightly movable joint) &
Diarthrosis (freely movable joint).
Functional Classification of Joints
According to Degree of Motion

1. Synarthrosis (Non-movable Joint)- ex.

Sutures between the bones of the skull
2. Ampiarthrosis (Slightly movable joint)-
ex. Pubic symphysis; joint between
bodies of vertebrae
3. Diarthrosis (Freely movable joint)- ex.
Plane or gliding, hinge, pivot, condyloid,
saddle, ball & socket joints or ellipsoid.
 Fibrous Joints
(Synarthrosis or Immovable)

 Consist of bones united by fibrous

connective tissue. They allow little or no
movement.
 Ex. Sutures between the bones of the
skull.
Fetal Skull Showing Fontanels & Sutures.
 Cartilaginous Joints
(Ampiarthrosis or Slightly Movable)

 Consist of bones united by cartilage, &

they exhibit slight movement.
 Ex. Pubic symphysis; joints between
bodies of vertebrae
 Synovial Joints
(Diarthrosis or Freely Movable Joints)

Consist of articular cartilage over the uniting

bones, a joint cavity lined by a synovial
membrane & containing synovial fluid & a
joint capsule. They are highly movable
joints.
Structure of Synovial Joint
 Structure of Synovial Joints
a. Joint cavity- contains synovial fluid
b. Ligaments- hold joint together
c. Joint Capsule- strengthens & protects
joint
d. Articular cartilage- covers ends of bones
e. Bursae- fluid-filled sacs near joints;
cushion & protect joints & surrounding
tissue.
Types of Synovial Joints
Cont…
 Types of Movement
 Flexion- is a bending motion that decreases
the angle between bones, as in bending the
fingers to close the hand.
 Extension- is a straightening motion that
increases the angle between bones, as in
straightening the fingers to open the hand.
 Abduction- is movement away from the
midline of the body, as in moving the arms
straight out to the sides.
 Adduction- is movement toward the midline of
the body, as in bringing the arms back to their
original position beside the body.
 Supination- is the act of turning the palm up or
forward.
 Pronation- turns the palm down or backward
 Inversion- is the act of turning the sole inward,
so that faces the opposite foot.
 Eversion- turns the sole outward, away from the
body.
 Dorsiflexion- the foot is bent upward at the ankle,
narrowing the angle between the leg & top of the foot.
 Plantar Flexion- toes point downward, as in toe
dancing , flexing the arch of the foot.
 Circumduction- the arm moves that it describes a
cone with the shoulder joint at the apex.
 Rotation- refers to a twisting or turning of a bone on
its own axis, as in turning the head from side to side
to say “no”.
 Protraction- is a movement in which a
structure , such as the mandible, glides
anteriorly.
 Retraction- the structure glides
posteriorly.
 Elevation- closing the mouth involves
elevation of mandible.
 Depression- opening the mouth involves
depression of the mandible.
 Excursion- moving of mandible from side
to side.
 Opposition- movement unique to the
thumb & little finger. Tips of thumb & little
finger are brought toward each other
across the palm of the hand.
 Reposition- returns the digits to the
anatomic position.
 Effects of Aging on the
Skeletal System & Joints
1. Bone matrix becomes brittle & decreases
the total amount during aging.
2. Joints lose articular cartilage and
become less flexible with age.
Thank You !!!