TRANSPORT ENGGINEERING

Prepared For:Diploma Sem

4(Civil )

Prepared By:Aparna Sharma

Syllabus
Road Engineering
Bridge Engineering
Railway Engineering
Harbour Engineering

BRIDGE ENGINEERING

CONTENTS
Bridge Introduction
Investigation for Bridge
Bridge Foundation
Bridge Sub-structure and Superstructure
Maintenance of bridges

Unit 1:Bridge Introduction

INTRODUCTION

A bridge is a structure for carrying the road

traffic or other moving loads over a
depression or obstruction such as river,
channel,road or railway.

Importance of bridge

Road & railway traffic can run uninterrupted in

monsoon.
Saving in time & fuel.
It improves aesthetic of a road.
Distance between two place can be reduced.
Agricultural & industrial products & raw materials
can reach to the industries quickly which helps in
economic development of the area.
Construction of a bridge on railway alignment at
level crossing reduces numbers of accidents.
Bridges are important from military point of view.

Components of bridge

SUPER STRUCTURE or DECKING

BEARINGS
SUBSTRUCTURE
PIERS AND ABUTMENTS
WING WALLS AND RETURNS
FOUNDATIONS

Bridge Components
Substructure

Superstructure

Foundation (Pile/Spread
footing)
Pier (Column)
Abutment

Any structure above

bearing
Wearing surface

Bridge Components

SUPERSTRUCTURE OR DECKING

This includes slab, girder, truss, etc. This

bears the load passing over it and transmits
the forces caused by the same to the
substructures.

BEARINGS

The BEARINGS transmit the load

received from the decking on to the
substructure and are provided for
distribution of the load evenly over the
substructure material which may not
have suffi cient bearing strength to bear
the superstructure load directly.

SUBSTRUCTURE
This comprises of Piers Abutments ,
Wing walls or return & their foundations

Piers and Abutments

These are vertical structures supporting
deck/bearing provided for transmitting the load
down to the bed/earth through foundation.

Wing walls and Returns

These are provided as extension of the
abutments to retain the earth of approach
bank which otherwise has a natural angle of
repose.

FOUNDATION
This is provided to transmit the load from the piers
or abutments and wings or returns to and evenly
distribute the load on to the strata.

Classification of bridge

Based on the material used

As per alignment
Location of bridge floor
Purpose
Types of superstructure
According to HFL
According to spans
Span length
Navigation facility
Life of bridge
As per loadings

Based on Materials

Timber Bridge
Stone Masonry
Rcc bridge
Steel bridge
Prestressed cement concrete bridge
Composite bridge

As Per Alignment

Straight alignment: When the alignment of a

bridge is perpendicular to the centre line of a
river, it is called straight bridge or square bridge.

Skew bridge: when the alignment of a bridge is

not perpendicular to the centre line of a bridge, it
is called skew bridge.

Location of bridge flooring

Deck Bridge:-When the bridge flooring is provided

at the top of the super structure,it is called Deck
bridge.
Through Bridge:-When the bridge flooring is
provided at the bottom of the super structure, it
is called through bridge.
Semi-Through bridge:-When the bridge flooring is
located at some intermediate level in the super
structure, it is called semi-through bridge.

Based on purpose

Aqueduct
Viaduct
Grade separator
Highway bridge
Railway bridge
Foot bridge
Pipe bridge

Based on type of superstructure

Slab bridge
Girder bridge
Truss bridge
Suspension bridge
Arch bridge

Girder/Beam Bridge
The most common and basic type
Typical spans : 10m to 200m

Truss Bridge

Truss is a simple skeletal structure.

Typical span lengths are 40m to 500m.

Forces in a Truss Bridge

In design theory, the individual members of a

simple truss are only subject to tension and
compression and not bending forces. For most part,
all the beams in a truss bridge are straight.

Arch Bridges

Hinge-less Arch

Two hinged
Arch

Arches used a curved

structure which provides a
high resistance to bending
forces.
Both ends are fixed in the
horizontal direction (no
horizontal movement
allowed in the bearings).
Arches can only be used
where ground is solid and
stable.
Hingeless arch is very stiff
and suffers less deflection.
Two-hinged arch uses
hinged bearings which allow
rotation and most commonly
used for steel arches and
very economical design.

Suspension Bridge

A typical suspension bridge is a continuous deck

with one or more towers erected above piers in the
middle of span. The deck maybe of truss or box
girder.
Cables pass over the saddle which allows free
sliding.
At both ends large anchors are placed to hold the
ends of the cables.

According to type of span

Submersible bridge or cause way

Low level causeway

High level causeway
Non submersible bridge

According to type of span

Simply supported bridge

Continuous bridge
Cantilever bridge
Balanced cantilever bridge
According to span length

Culvert-span up to 8m
Minor bridge-8-30 m
Major bridge-30-120 m
Long span bridge-above 120 m

According to navigation facility

Swing bridge
Bascule bridge
Traverse bridge
Lift bridge
Transporter bridge

Swing bridge
Aswing bridgeis a
movable bridgethat has as its
primary structural support a
vertical locating pin and
support ring, usually at or
near to its centre of gravity,
about which the turning span
can then pivot horizontally

Bascule bridge

Abascule bridge(sometimes referred to as a

drawbridge) is amoveable bridgewith a
counterweight that continuously balances thespan
, or "leaf," throughout the entire upward swing in
providing clearance for boat traffic.

Transporter bridge
Atransporter bridge(alsoferry bridgeoraerial
transfer bridge) is a type ofmovable bridgethat
carries a segment of roadway across a river.

According to life of bridge

Temporary bridge
Pontoon bridge
Boat bridge
Flying bridge
Raft bridge
Permanent bridge
Rcc bridge
Masonary bridge
Steel bridge
Prestressed concrete bridge

As per loading

Class AA bridge
Class A bridge
Class B bridge

Low coast bridge

A low coast bridge may be define as bridge

constructed at low cost and capable of being
maintained at low cost.

Reason to construct low coast bridge

Lack of money, resource

Lack of time and materials
Temporary need
Repairs to permanent works
Undertaking project surveys in the interiors
To facilitate the execution of permanent works.

Types of low coast bridge

Causeways
Culverts
Timber bridges
Floating bridges
Flying bridges

Unit 2:Investigation for bridge

Selection
of site
Which Type
Should
I Use?

Span length

Bridge length

Beam spacing

Material available

Site conditions (foundation, height, apace

constraints)

Speed of construction

Aesthetics

Cost

Access for maintenance

Factor affecting selection of site

Width of bridge
A straight reach
Foundations
River banks
Square alignment
Materials and labour
Velocity of flow
Free board
Minimum obstruction to waterway
Absence of scouring and silting
No confluence of large tributaries
Adequate vertical height

Terms related to bridge

Length of the bridge:- The distance between inner

faces of two abutments is called length of the
bridge.(L)
The clear distance between two piers or between
abutment and pier is called the clear span.
Let , there are n numbers of spans.
NO. of piers=n-1
Length of bridge,
L=(n*l)+(n-l)*b
where, l=clear span
n=number of span
b=width of span

Linear water way: The area through which the

water flows under a bridge super structure is
known as the water way of the bridge & the linear
measurement of waterway between the two
edges of the flow of the water, perpendicular to
the abutments is called linear water way.

Linear water way=sum of all the clear span

Effective linear water way:

= width of river bed - obstructions to flow like pier
width

Afflux: The phenomenon of heading up of water

on the upstream side of the stream is known as
afflux.
= Increased in water level due to obstructions Normal water level.
Free board: Free board is the vertical distance
between the designed high flood level, allowing
for afflux, if any , and the level of the bottom of
the bridge girders.

Vertical clearance: They are of two types:

1) Below super structure
2) Above super structure

Below super structure: IT is a vertical intercept

between the lowest level of supporting structure
of bridge flooring and the maximum water level
at time of HFL.

Above super structure: When vehicle travel on

abridge any projecting part of the vehicle should
not strike with sides or at the top.

High flood level: it is the level of the highest flood

ever recorded or calculated.

Formation level: The level of flooring of a bridge

super structure is called formation level.

Scour depth: The term scour used to indicate the

increase in depth in vertical direction of the bed of
river , such increase in depth in mainly due to the
currents of flowing water. The bridge foundations
should be taken beyond the depth of scour.

Economic span: The economic span of a bridge is

the one which reduces the overall cost of a bridge
to be a minimum.

Thus most economic span length is that which

satisfies the following,i.e,
The cost of the super structure=The cost of the
substructure.

Unit 4:Bridge substructure and

superstructure

Types of Substructure

It consist of the following :

Piers
Abutment
Wing wall
Approach
Foundation

Types of piers

Solid pier
Dumb bell
Column pier
Cylindrical pier
Abutment pier
Pile pier
Trestle pier
Cellular pier

Function of piers:

To transfer the load of the superstructure to the

soil through foundation.
To divide the bridge length into suitable spans.
Function of weep holes:

Weep holes are provided to drain off water which

gets access to the earth filling.

Abutments:

The end support of a bridge super structure is

known as an abutment.

Function :
To finish up the bridge so that it can be put for
use.
To retain the earth filling.
To transmit the reaction of superstructure to the
foundation.

Importance of bearings:

The device which are provided over the supports

of the bridge to accommodate the changes in the
main girders due to deflection, temperature,
vertical movement due to shrinkage, creep.
prestressing etc ,and to transmit the load from
the superstructure to the substructure are known
as bearings.

Function of bearings
To
To
To
To
To
To

absorb movement of girders.

distribute load on large area.
simplify the procedure in design.
keep the procedure in design.
keep the compressive stress within limits.
transfer horizontal forces due to braking.

a)Bearings for
slab bridge
For concrete
bearings

Unit 5:Matainance of bridge

Deterioration of bridge
Factors affecting deterioration:
Defective design of bridge
Poor quality of construction materials
Poor quality control during construction
Effect of water on the parts in contact with water
Resistance to weathering effects
Temperature changes
Movement of vehicles heavier than the design
load
Miscellaneous factors like flood,earthquake,etc.
Negligence to minor defects.

Preventive measures:

Various inspection were carried out to prevent

deterioration are:
Inspection of foundation
Inspection of substructure
Inspection of superstructure
Inspection of approach road
Inspection of bearings
Inspection of waterway
Inspection of protection works
Inspection about scouring

Defects in bridge and remedial

measures:

Weakening of foundation : In such case, the

bridge should be closed for traffic. By
underpinning technique the foundation should be
strengthened by providing grillage foundation or
pile foundation.

Erosion of foundation: If erosion is substantial,

urgent repair is required. The soil surrounding the
old foundation is excavated and new concrete
bed is provided. If depth of scour is more sheet
piles are driven around the old foundation.

Damage flooring and approaches: In case of

cement concrete road , if the wearing surface of
road is worm out due to heavy traffic and
reinforcement bars are visible , it is visible to
provide a new layer of cement concrete or
bituminous concrete.
Defects in bearings: For effective functioning of
bearing following care is to be taken:
Cleaning of bearing regularly
Regular lubrication
There should not be cracks in the bearing
It should be free from corrosion.

Inspecting Report:
After inspecting the
various components of a bridge, the PWD
engineer prepared a detailed report. A copy
of this report is submitted to the executive
engineer and superintending engineer.

Purpose of inspection report:

To get the information regarding damage to the

various components.
To prepare an estimate of repair
To know the cause of damage
To decide the importance of works of repair
To make arrangement of funds for repair
Necessity of inspection report:

Inspection report is necessary to decide the

requirement of skilled and unskilled labours
machinery machinery and equipments.
To make alternative planning for diversion of traffic
in advance.

RAILWAY ENGINEERING

Contents

Railway Introduction
Points, crossing and Yards
Maintenance of railway tracks

Introduction

Rail transport is where at rain runs along a set of

two parallel steel rails, known as a railway or
railroad. The rails are anchored perpendicular to
ties(or sleepers) of timber, concrete or steel, to
maintain a consistent distance apart, or gauge.
The rails and perpendicular beams are placed on
a foundation made of concrete, or compressed
earth and gravel in a bed of ballast.

Advantages of rail transport

It facilitate long distance travel and transport of

bulky goods which are not easily transported
through motor vehicles.

It is a quick and more regular form oftransport

because it helps in the transportation of goods
with speed and certainty.

It helps in the industrialization process of a

country by easy transportation of coal an drawmaterials at a cheaper rate. Ballast

Components of a railway track

rail

sleeper
s

Ballast

Gauge
The clear horizontal distance between the
inner faces of the two rails forming the track
at the top is called the gauge of the rails.
There are four types of the gauges in india.
Broad gauge(B.G.)=1.676m
Metre gauge(M.G)=1.00m
Narrow gauge(N.G.)=0.762m
Light gauge(L.G.)=0.610m

Uniformity of gauges

Gauge to be used in particular country should be

uniform throughtout as fsr as possible,because it
will avoid many difficulties.

Advantages

The delay cost and hardship in transhipping

passengers and goods from the vehicles of one
gauge to another is avoided.
As the transhipping is not required,there is no
breakage of goods.
Difficulties in loading and unloading are avoided
and labour charges are saved.

Function and points of crossing

Points and crossing are special arrangements

provided on railway tracks for enabling trains to
be diverted from one track to another.

It provided flexibility of movement by connecting

one line to another according to requirements.
They also help for imposing restrictions over turn
outs which necessarily retard the movements.

Railway station

A railway station is a place on a railway

line,where trains stop for clearing passengers and
goods traffic.
Purposes of railway stations:
For exchange of passengers
For exchange of goods
For control of train movements
To enable the following express trains to
overtake.

YARDS

A yard is a system of tracks laid usually on a level

within defined limits, for receiving, storing,
making up trains, dispatch of vehicles and for
other purposes over which movements are not
authorized by a time table.

Requirements of station yards

An adequate number of plateforms should be

provided so that all trains can be dealt with at the
same time.
There should be convenient sidings where extra
carriages can be stabled after having been
detached from trains
Unless all trains are booked to stop at the station,
it should be possible to run a train through the
station at a prescribed speed
Washing lines, sick lines, stabling lines, etc
should be provided at the station yard.

HARBOUR ENGINEERING

HARBOUR:
SHELTERED AREA
FOR LOADING AND UNLOADING OF CARGO
VESSELS ARE ALSO BUILT, REPAIR, AND LAUNCH


1.
2.
3.

CLASSIFICATION:
NATURAL HARBOUR
SEMI NATURAL HARBOUR
ARTIFICIAL HARBOUR

NATURAL HARBOURS:
Aharbor, is a place
whereships,boats, and bargescan seek shelter
fromstormyweather.

SEMI NATURAL HARBOUR:

Same as natural but harbour needs
some artificial and man made construction

ARTIFICIAL HARBOUR:
Harbour having no natural protection but
artificial arrangement are made to protect the
harbour from storm and wind.

REQUIREMENTS OF A GOOD HARBOR:

The depth of a harbor should be sufficient for
every type of visiting ships.
The bottom of harbor should provide secured
anchorage to hold the ships against high winds.
To prevent destructive wave action, break water
are provided.
The entrance of a harbor should be wide
enough to provide the easy passage of ships.

DEFECTS IN HARBOR:
Depth of water is found insufficient for different
ships.
The size of harbor is found insufficient to
accommodate the increased traffic.
Obstruction
These defects can easily be avoided at the time
of planning and designing.

SIZE OF A HARBOUR
Size depends upon:
of ships
length:275m-300m
width:30m

HARBOUR PLANNING
It should be carried out after collecting necessary
information of the existing features at the
proposed site.

Following important facts should be studied.

A thorough survey of the neighborhood including
the foreshore & depths of water is necessary
Nature of a harbor wether sheltered or not, be
studied
The existance of sea insects & various animals
residing at site.

Natural phenomenas concerning planning of a

harbour are:
Storms
Rainfall
Range of tides
Maximum & minimum temperatures
Direction & intensity of wind etc

SITE SELECTION:

Following factors play a great role in

the choice of site of a harbour.
1.Availability of cheap land & construction material.
2.Natural protection from waves & winds
3.Transport & communication facilities
4.Industrial development of the locality
5.Sea bed,sub soil & foundation conditions
6.Avaibility of electrical energy
7.Defence & strategic aspects
8.trafic potentiality of harbour

FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION:
1. HARBOR OF REFUGE
2. COMMERCIAL HARBOR
3. FISHRY HARBOR
4. MILLITARY HARBOR OR NAVEL BASE

HARBOR OF REFUGE:
The harbor used for ships in storms or
emergency condition good anchorage and safe
and easy access from the sea.
e.g: DOVER IN ENGLAND

HARBOUR DOCK ENGINEERING

COMMERCIAL HARBOR:
Facilities for loading and unloading of
cargo are provided.
The may be:
1. Part of bigger complex harbor
2. Independent unit or single
commodity harbor.
3. Terminal as oil terminal, coal
port.

HARBOUR DOCK ENGINEERING

FISHRY HARBOR:
Provided for fishing crafts and trawlers.

MILLITARY HARBOR:
This harbor is meant for accommodating
naval crafts and serves as a supply deport.
The layout of this type of harbor is greatly
influenced by its location.

HARBOUR DOCK ENGINEERING

FEATURES OF A HARBOR:
1. Entrance Channels
2. Berthing Basin
3. Break Water
4. Turning Basin
5. Pier Head
6. Wharves
7. Jetties

ENTRANCE CHANNEL:
Depth and width are kept more at entrance
Width depends upon density of traffic and no: of
entrances

BERTHING AND TURNING BASINS:

Berthing basins are used for the parking of ships
While turning for the turning of ships

BREAK WATER:
The structure constructed to protect harbor from
storm waves
They are generally stone masonry

PIER HEAD:
The structure provided at the tip of break water
Such as light house

WHARVES:
The structure constructed parallel to the shore or
break water, having wide plate form at the top
Function is to permit berthing of vessel along side
for cargo working

JETTIES:
Same as wharves.
Used for loading and unloading of cargo.
Made usually from shore towards sea water to
prevent silting and dredging to allow free flow of
tidal currents.

HARBOUR DOCK ENGINEERING

DOCK:
A dock is dug out and usually has gates so that
the water level is kept up even though the tide
has gone out.
A dock is for mooring ships for cargo or passenger
exchange, or sometimes repair.

HARBOR:
A harbour may be natural or partly dug out, or
even made with floating materials. It doesn't have
gates, but may have a narrow entrance.
Provides safe anchoring or mooring for ships

PORTS:
Aportis a location on a coast or shore containing
one or moreharborswhere ships can dock and
transfer people or cargo to or from land.

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