HIGHWAY DESIGN

CONSISTENCY
A method for identification of horizontal alignments that create speed transition problems
for the motorist and recommendations for correcting them, and may help to improve highway
safety on the important portion of the road network. An analysis based on design, speed,
volume, and accident data.
Consistency in road conditions contributes greatly to safety. A stretch of road that is too
narrow, too curvy, too steep may in fact be safer than the same stretch with several short
improved sections. This is because motorists get an idea of what to expect with consistent albeit
substandard conditions.
Refers to the conformance of a highway's geometry with driver expectancy. Drivers make
fewer errors in the vicinity of geometric features that conform with their expectations.

DESIGN SPEED
is a selected speed used to determine the
various geometric features of the roadway. The
assumed design speed should be a logical one
with respect to the topography, anticipated
operating speed, the adjacent land use, and the
functional classification of the highway.
The design speed is a fundamental and very
important choice that a designer makes. The
selected design speed should be high enough so
that an appropriate regulatory speed limit will be
less than or equal to it. Desirably, the speed at
which drivers are operating comfortably will be
close to the posted speed limit.

Type of
Roadway
Freeway

Arterial

Collector

Local

Terrain

Rural

Urban

US (mi/h)

Metric (km/h)

US (mi/h)

Metric (km/h)

Level

70

110

50 min

80 min

Rolling

70

110

50 min

80 min

Mountainous

5060

80100

50 min

80 min

Level

6075

100120

3060

50100

Rolling

5060

80100

3060

50100

Mountainous

4050

6080

3060

50100

Level

4060

60100

30+

50+

Rolling

3050

5080

30+

50+

Mountainous

2040

3060

30+

50+

Level

3050

5080

2030

3050

Rolling

2040

3060

2030

3050

Mountainous

2030

3050

2030

3050

(Source: A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, AASHTO)

CROSS SECTION OF A TYPICAL HIGHWAY

Cross section requirements for roadways vary according to the capacity and level of
service to be provided. Universal standards in the design of roadways are not practical. Each
roadway section must be individually analyzed and its cross section determined based on the
volume and type of projected traffic, existing capacity, desired level of service, and available
right-of-way. These cross sections are typical for facilities on new location and where right-ofway constraints are not critical. For widening projects and urban projects with limited right-ofway, special cross sections should be developed that meet the needs of the project.

ROAD SHOULDER
A road shoulder is a strip of land immediately
adjacent to the traffic lane of a road not bordered
by kerb & channel. The shoulder may be sealed in the
case of highways and major roads, but it is typically
unsealed and of a lesser depth and perhaps constructed
of inferior material than the adjacent traffic lane.
Road shoulders are designed to:
provide a factor of safety for road users who
accidently leave or are forced to leave the sealed
pavement area, and
protect the sealed pavement from excess
deterioration.

CUT OR FILL SLOPE

There are various methods for paving, sloping, and providing drainage for benches.
In earthmoving, cut and fill is the process of constructing a railway, road or canal whereby
the amount of material from cuts roughly matches the amount of fill needed to make
nearby embankments, so minimizing the amount of construction labor.
Cut sections of roadway or rail are characterized by the roadway being lower in
elevation than the surrounding terrain. While fill sections manifest as elevated sections of a
roadway or track bed.

CROSS SLOPE/CAMBER

Is a geometric feature of pavement surfaces. The transverse slope

with respect to the horizon. It is a very important safety factor. Cross slope
is provided to provide adrainage gradientso that water will run off the
surface to adrainagesystem such as astreet gutterorditch.
Cross Slope is the angle in the vertical plane from a horizontal line to a
line on the surface, which is perpendicular to the center line. Typical
values range from 2 percent for straight segments to 10 percent for sharp
super elevated curves. It may also be expressed as a fraction of an inch in
rise over a one-foot run (1/4inchperfoot).

HIGHWAY MEDIAN/CENTRAL RESERVATION

Is the reserved area that separates opposing lanes of traffic on divided roadways, such as divided
highways, dual carriageways, freeway, and motorways. The term also applies to divided roadways other
than highways, such as some major streets in urban or suburban areas. The reserved area may simply
be paved, but commonly it is adapted to other functions; for example, it may accommodate decorative
landscaping, trees, a median barrier,

GRADE LINE
Is a line slope used as longitudinal reference for a railroad or highway. Inclinations with
the horizontal of a road, railroad, etc., usually expressed by stating the vertical rise or fall as a
percentage of the horizontal distance; slope.
One factor that significantly influences the selection of a highway location is the terrain
the land, which is turn affects the laying of the grade line. The primary factor that the
designer considers on laying the grade line is the amount of earthwork that will be necessary
for the selected grade line. The height of the grade line is usually dictated by expected
floodwater level. Grade lines should also be set such that the minimum sight distance
requirements are obtained
Maximum Grade- is determined by a table, with up to 6 % allowed in mountainous areas and
hilly urban areas
Profile Grade Line(PGL)- a single line, straight or curved, along the length of the highway,
sometimes but not always on the center of the highway.
Grade Separation- is the process of aligning junction of two or more transport axes at
different heights(grades) so that they will not disrupt the traffic flow on
other transit routes when they cross each other.

RIGHT OF WAY
The legal right, established by usage or grant, to pass
along a specific route through grounds or property
belonging to another.
The legal right of a pedestrian, vehicle, or ship to
proceed with precedence over others in a particular
situation or place.

ROAD ALIGNMENT
Thealignmentis the route of theroad,definedas a series
of horizontal tangents and curves. The profile is the vertical
aspect of theroad, including crest and sag curves, and the
straight grade lines connecting them.
A horizontal curve in a roadway refers to the alignment,
or how straight the roadway section is.
A vertical curve refers to a roadways change in elevation,
or the flatness of the roadway.

WIDENING OF CURVE
The extra widening of pavement on
horizontal curves is divided in to two
parts:
Mechanical widening
The widening required to account for
the off tracking due to the rigidity of wheel
base
Psychological widening
At horizontal curves drivers have a
tendency to maintain a greater clearance
between the vehicles than on straight
stretches of road. Therefore an extra width
of pavement is provided for psychological
reasons for greater maneuverability of

ISLANDS

A traffic-control island is a defined area between

traffic lanes , for control of vehicle movements or for
pedestrian refuge. Within an intersection area, a
median or an outer separation is considered to be an
island. An island may be designated by paint, raised
bars, mushroom buttons, curbs, guideposts,
pavement edge, or other devices. An island includes
not only the designated area but also all end
protection and approach-end treatments.

Classification Of Island
Pedestrian refuge island
- are provided to serve as safety zones for the aid and
protection of persons on foot. The right of a pedestrian to
occupy a pedestrian island in safety is commonly sustained
by law.
Traffic divisional islands
-all areas created for separating and directing vehicular
traffic. They may be either channelizing or divisional.
Divisional islands serve to divide- opposing or samedirection traffic streams that are usually through
movements. Channelizing islands are designed to control
and direct traffic movement, usually turning movements

TYPES OF INTERCHANGE
Interchangeis
aroad
junctionthat
typically
usesgrade separation, and one or more ramps, to
permit traffic on at least onehighwayto pass through
the junction without directly crossing any other traffic
stream. It differs from a standardintersection, at which
roads crossat grade. Interchanges are almost always
used when at least one of the roads is a controlledaccess highway(freeway or motorway) or alimited
acces divided highway(expressway), though they may
occasionally be used at junctions between two surface
streets.

Four-way interchanges
Cloverleaf interchange
is typically a two-level,
four-way interchange where
all turns across opposing
traffic are handled by nondirectional
loop
ramps.
Assuming
right
handed
traffic, to go left vehicles
first cross over or under the
target route, then bear right
onto a sharply curved ramp
that turns roughly 270
degrees, merging onto the

Rotterdam, Netherlands.

 Stack interchange
Is a four-way interchange whereby a
semi-directional left turn and a
directional right turn are both
available. Usually access to both
turns is provided simultaneously by a
single off-ramp. Assuming righthanded driving, in order to cross
over incoming traffic and go left,
vehicles first exit onto an off-ramp
from the rightmost lane. After
demerging from right-turning traffic,
they complete their left turn by
crossing both highways on a flyover
ramp or underpass.

SHANGHAI CHINA

 Turbine interchange
(also
known
as
a
whirlpool).
The
turbine/whirlpool
interchange requires fewer
levels (usually two or three)
while
retaining
semidirectional
ramps
throughout, and has its leftturning
ramps
sweep
around the center of the
interchange
in
aspiralpattern in righthand traffic.

Chicago,Illinois,

 Roundabout interchange

A further alternative found

often is called a roundabout
interchange. This is a normal
roundabout except one (twolevel) or both (three-level)
mainlines pass under or over
the whole interchange. The
ramps of the interchanging
highways
meet
at
aroundaboutorrotaryon
a
separated level above, below,
or in the middle of the two
highways.

Netherlands,

 Hybrid Interchanges
A mixture of
interchange types
and are not
uncommon. Their
construction can
consist of multiple
interchange designs
such as loop ramps,
flyovers and
roundabouts.
Hong Kong Island side, Hong Kong. Circa 1970.

Three-way interchanges
Trumpet interchange
Trumpet interchanges have
been used where one
highway
terminates
at
another highway. These
involve at least one loop
ramp
connecting
traffic
either entering or leaving
the terminating expressway
with the far lanes of the
continuous highway.

Ottawa, Ontario
.

 Directional T interchange

A full Y-interchange (also known

as a directional T interchange) is
typically used when a three-way
interchange is required for two
or three highways interchanging
in semi-parallel/perpendicular
directions, but it can also be
used in right-angle case as well.
Their connecting ramps can spur
from either the right or left side
of the highway, depending on
the direction of travel and the
angle.

San Jose, California

 Semi-directional T interchange
Semi-directional T some of the splits
and merges are switched to avoid
ramps to and from thepassing lane,
eliminating the major disadvantage of
the directional T. Semi-directional T
interchanges are generally safe and
efficient, though being three-level
interchanges they do require more
land and are costlier than trumpet
interchanges.
Semi-directional
T
interchanges are built as two or threelevel stacks. Three-level stacks may
use an overpass and underpass at a
single point. Two-level stacks have a

Orbe, Switzerland

Two-way interchanges
Basket
interchange

weave

is commonly found on
highways
using
a
collector/express system or
long
collector/distributor
lanes. In a basket weave one
highway
is
able
to
interchange
with
itself,
allowing traffic traveling in
the same direction to switch
between
carriageways

Toronto, Canada

HIGHWAY INTERSECTION
Anintersectionis
thejunctionatgrade(that is to say, on the same
level) of two or more roads either
meeting or crossing. An intersection
may bethree-way(aT junctionorY
junction the latter also known as
aforkif approached from the stem of
the Y), four-way (often in the form of
acrossroads), or have five (a5points)
or
more
arms.
Busy
intersections are often controlled
bytraffic lightsand/or roundabout.

Intersection inMakati City

FREEWAY ENTRANCE AND EXIT

Acceleration Deceleration
Lane
Conflicts can arise
Entering traffic yields to
exiting traffic
Be courteous not competitive

EXIT THE FREEWAY

1.Plan For Exit Read Signs

2.Move to the Right Lane Well in
t Rear
Zone Status
Advance
gnal Early & Maintain Speed
st Brakes Before Exit in Wet Weather Conditions
6.Enter Deceleration Lane
7.Controlled Braking in Exit Lane, Not in
Traffic
8.Beware of Velocitation, Use Your
Speedometer,

FREEWAY ENTRANCE

Acceleration Area

ON RAMP BEHAVIOR

1. Check Your Rear Zone

2. Keep 4+ Seconds of
Space in Front
3. Slow On Ramp Speed
4. Search For a Stable

ON ACCELERATION LANE

4.
5.
6.
7.

Reevaluate the Gap for Entry

Signal Light On
Check Blind Spot
Accelerate Briskly To Gap

MERGE AREA-HIGHWAY ENTRY

8. Precision Lane Entry

9. Front & Rear Zone Checks
10. Create Open Space