Lost!!!!!

Make your list

Explain why you chose the people you did, perhaps

why others deserved to be sacrificed

What you think would happen once the group landed

on the island

Lost - Shared
Share your lists on the board share out with the

class
Things to consider as they are shared out:

What similarities do you notice?

What dissimilarities do you see?
What does this reveal to you about the people in the room?

Questions to ask yourself

Where do you fit in? What is your role in groups?
Are you a player or an observer?
Do you cooperate with others, lead, follow, contribute, guide,

advise or just watch?

Should you take a more active role?
Should you contribute more?
Have you a dominant personality? If so - should you encourage
others to contribute?
Do you have a more subdued personality? If so, should you
contribute more?
Good group work, effective committees and successful
management teams are based on effective contributions from
everyone. Where do you fit in? Cooperating with others is vital
for every type of management task!

The Bottom Line

There are multiple ways to approach problems,

particularly in psychology you need to beware of

the quick fix and easy answer

Introduction to Psychology
EXPLORING THE ROOTS AND REACH OF THE
DISCIPLINE

In a nutshell
Psychology

Psyche: Mind
Logos: Knowledge or study
Definition: The scientific study of behavior and mental
processes
Behavior: Overt; i.e., can be directly observed (crying)
Mental Processes: Covert; i.e., cannot be directly observed
(remembering); private, internal

sensations, perceptions, dreams, thoughts, beliefs, and feelings

Empirical Evidence: Information gathered from direct

observation

Prescientific Psychology
Roots lie in early philosophers
Socrates and Plato
Are ideas inborn or is the mind a blank slate filled

by experience?
Is the mind separable from the body and does it
continue to exist after death?
Yes, said Socrates and Plato

Aristotle (Platos student)

Knowledge is not pre-existing; knowledge grows

from experiences

Psychology begins to evolve

Rene Descartes

Agreed with the idea that the mind was

distinct from the body and existed after
death
Investigated how the immaterial mind
and corporeal body communicate
Dissected animals and concluded that
the fluid in ventricles contained animal
spirits
Memories created when experience
opened pores in the brain through which
the animal spirits flowed (nerves)

Empiricism
Bacon and Locke

Bacon argues that humans assume a more orderly world than

actually exists and have a tendency to confirm our beliefs
Locke argued the mind is a tabula rasa

Empiricism

Knowledge comes from experience via the senses

Science flourishes through observation and experimentation

***What is the mind?***

Turn to a partner and come to an agreement to the

question:

What is the mind?

Now, you and your partner should turn to another

set and the four of you need to come to an agreement

to the question:

Is the mind separate from the body?

The Beginnings of Experimentation

Wilhelm Wundt
Opened the first psychology

laboratory at the University of

Leipzig (c. 1879)

Measured the time lag

between hearing a ball hit a
platform and indicating that
the sound occurred AS
WELL AS when they were
aware of hearing the sound
Made psychology
independent of philosophy
and physiology

Wundt insisted that

psychology be a science and

that the scientific method be
used to study consciousness.
Wundt is considered the

founder of experimental
psychology.
Edward Titchner was
Wundts student and pushed
further - Structuralism

The New Science

G. Stanley Hall studied

under Wundt
Hall opened the first
psych lab in the USA
Hall established the
American Psychological
Association (APA)

Structuralism
The goal of structuralism

was to break consciousness

down into its basic parts so it
could be analyzed.
Used introspection (looking
in) to explore the elemental
structure of the human mind
What immediate sensations, images

and feelings were experienced?

Ack!! It relied on subjects

who were intelligent/verbal

Functionalism
Focused on how behavioral

processes function - how they

enable organism to adapt,
survive, and flourish not
analyzing its parts

William James

Consciousness serves a purpose

and should be studied

Functionalists began studying

intelligence, child development, sex
roles, emotion, memory, streams of
consciousness, and other aspects of
the real world.

Behaviourism
Psychology as the behaviorist views it is a purely

objective experimental branch of natural science.

Its theoretical goal is the prediction and control of
behavior. -- John B. Watson, 1913

Behaviorism
You cannot observe thoughts or perceptions but you can

observe behaviour
John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner science of behaviour
Psychology must study observable behavior objectively
Watson studied Little Albert with Rosalie Raynor;
Skinner studied animals almost exclusively

Psychoanalytic (Psychodynamic)
Psychoanalytic: Freud

Our behavior is largely influenced by

our unconscious wishes, thoughts,
and desires, especially sex and
aggression.
Freud performed dream analysis and
was an interactionist (combination of
our biology and environment make us
who we are).
Repression: Unconscious thoughts held
out of awareness because they are
threatening
All thoughts and actions are
determined; nothing is an accident

Freud & Psychoanalysis

Freuds approach was

controversial because 1)
it is antithetical to
behaviorism and 2) it
often has an emphasis on
sex, a topic which
scientists were
uncomfortable studying
at the time.

Gestalt Psychology
Wolfgang Khler,
Rebelled against Wundt and
structuralist reductions of
experience into individual parts
Emphasized human

tendency to integrate pieces

of information into
meaningful wholes

The whole exceeds the

sum of its parts

 The design you see here is entirely made up of broken circles. However, as

the Gestalt psychologists discovered, our perceptions have a powerful

tendency to form meaningful patterns. Because of this tendency, you will
probably see a triangle in this design, even though it is only an illusion.
Your whole perceptual experience exceeds the sum of its parts.

Humanism: A Reaction to Behaviourism and

Psychoanalytic theory
Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow

Goal of psychology is to study unique aspects of the person; focuses

on subjective human experience.
Each person has innate goodness and is able to make free choices
(contrast with Skinner and Freud). The self-concept governs us and
we grow to our potential
Client centered therapy with unconditional positive regard at its
centre

Maslow: Self-actualization - develop ones full potential and

become the best person one can be

Other Reactions
Also a reaction to behaviorism, cognitive

psychologists argued that behavior cant be

understood without understanding the underlying
mental processes that control behavior.
Biological psychologists insist that we also have to

understand the physical structures and biochemistry

that allow cognition

Cognitive and Cognitive Behavioural

Cognitive:

Is in opposition to Behavioural Psychology

Study thoughts, memory, expectations, perceptions, and
other mental processes

Cognitive Behaviorism: Albert Ellis and Albert Bandura

Our thoughts influence our behaviors; used often in

treatment of depression

Biological Psychology
Our behavior can be explained through physiological

processes
Uses brain scans to gather data (CT, MRI, PET)
Looks at neurotransmitters, hormones
Treats psychological problems with medications

Sociocultural
Psychological approach that emphasizes social and

cultural forces outside the individual

Focuses on the study of rules, roles, in- group behaviour and

relationships
Cultural norms, values and expectations

Evolutionary
Based in Darwins evolutionary

theory
Asserts that behavioural
characteristics are subject to
natural selection

Thus, it attempts to explain useful

mental and psychological traits
such as memory, perception, or
languageas adaptations, i.e., as the
functional products of natural
selection

Biopsychosocial
Melding of paradigms
The biopsychosocial approach

was developed at Rochester

decades ago by Drs. George
Engel and John Romano.
The biopsychosocial approach

systematically considers
biological, psychological, and
social factors and their
complex interactions in
understanding health, illness,
and health care delivery.

What is the Purpose of Psychologists?

To investigate....
Development: Course of

human growth and

development
Learning: How and why it
occurs in humans and
animals
Personality: Traits,
motivations, and
individual differences
Sensation and Perception:
How we come to know the
world through our five
senses

Social: Human and social

behavior
Cultural: How culture
affects human behavior
Cognitive: How
reasoning, problem
solving, and other mental
processes relate to human
behavior
Evolutionary: How our
behavior is guided by
patterns that evolved
during human history

What is the Purpose of Psychologists - Rephrased

Provide description of behaviors - naming and

classifying various observable, measurable behaviors

Understand the causes of behavior(s)
Predict future behavior accurately
Obtain/facilitate control: Altering conditions that
influence behaviors
Positive Use: To control unwanted behaviors, (e.g.,
smoking, tantrums, etc.)
Negative Use: To control/influence peoples
behaviors without their knowledge or consent

Other Areas of Research

Psychometrics is the measurement of behavior and

mental processes, usually through the use and

development of psychological tests.
Social Psychology studies interpersonal behaviour and
the social forces which govern behaviour.
Experimental Psychology focuses on
sensation/perception, motivation, emotion, and learning.
However, psychologists in all areas of research do
experiments.
Personality studies an individuals consistency in
behaviour and factors which shape personality.
Developmental Psychology studies human
development across the life span.

Professional Psychology
Clinical Psychology (Ph.D)
Clinical psychologists study, assess, and treat people with
psychological disorders as well as less severe behavioral and
emotional problems
Uses psychotherapy to treat psychological disorders
Psychiatry (M.D.)
A specialty in medicine dealing with psychological disorders
Psychiatrists are physicians who use medical as well as
psychotherapeutic treatments
Counseling Psychologists (Ph.D)

Perform similar work as clinical psychologists, but tend to work

with people dealing with more common and less severe
problems.
Some of the areas of specialization include marriage, family,
grief, and career counseling.

Professional Psychology

Educational Psychologists improve

curriculum, teacher education, and standardized
tests.

School Psychologists test and counsel children

with school related problems

Industrial and Organizational Psychologists

work in business and industry to improve HR
departments, improve staff morale, and increase
worker productivity.

Was, Is, Going

In your discussion groups complete the

following:
Characterize what psychology was (before

modern psychology), what psychology is and

where you think it will go in the future

For Discussion

Does the plurality of paradigms make

Psychology stronger as a science?

Or, does it suggest an inability to understand

human behaviour and mental processes?

Discuss with a partner your thoughts and be

prepared to share with the class.

Lets Build a PATH

Contemporary Psychology: Research

Basic Research

pure science that aims to increase the knowledge base

Applied Research

scientific study that aims to solve practical problems

Contemporary Psychology

Contemporary Psychology
Nature-Nurture Controversy
Behaviourism led to one of the fundamental
questions in psychology:

Is behaviour determined more by heredity (nature) or

by environment and experience (nurture)?
How big a role does each play in determining a certain
behavior?

The Science of Psychology

Psychologists, like all scientists, use the scientific

method to construct theories that organize

observations and imply testable hypotheses

The Science of Psychology

Hindsight Bias

We tend to believe, after learning an outcome, that we would

have foreseen it
the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon

Overconfidence
We tend to think we know more than we do

The Scientific Attitude

Critical Thinking

thinking that does not blindly

accept arguments and
conclusions

The Amazing Randi--Skeptic

examines assumptions
discerns hidden values
evaluates evidence
assesses conclusions

The Scientific Method

Theory
an explanation using an integrated set of principles that
organizes and predicts behaviours or events

Hypothesis
a testable prediction
often implied by a theory
Example: Lack of sleep will lead to increased experience of
negative affect

The Scientific Method

The Scientific Method

Operational Definition
a statement of procedures (operations) used to define research
variables

Intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence

test measures

The Scientific Method

Replication
repeating the essence of a research study to see whether
the basic finding extends to other participants and
circumstances
usually with different participants in different situations

Research Practices

Psychologists describe behavior using case studies,

surveys, and naturalistic observation

Case Studies
Are useful observation

techniques in which one

person is studied in depth
in the hope of revealing
universal principals

Pro: Can provide new insights

or areas for further study
Con: Can be unrepresentative
and non-generalizable

Phineas Gage

Survey
Technique for ascertaining the self-reported

attitudes or behaviors of people

Usually by questioning a representative,
random sample of people
Pro: Can be used to look at many cases or

respondents more representative

Con: Prone to question phrasing/wording
influencing how people respond

Necessary Components
Population
The whole group you want to study and from the
population come samples (manageable)
Sample size matters

The larger the sample size the better

Representative Sample
a sample that is a perfect reflection of a population,

only smaller in size

Random Sample
a sample that fairly represents a population because each
member has an equal chance of inclusion

Naturalistic Observation

Involves observing and

recording behavior in
naturally occurring
situations without trying to
manipulate and control the
situation
Pro:
Con:

Correlation
Correlation Coefficient
a statistical measure of the extent to which two factors vary
together, and thus how well either factor predicts the other
Indicates direction
of relationship
(positive or negative)
Correlation
coefficient

r = +.37

Indicates strength
of relationship
(0.00 to 1.00)

Correlation
Three Possible Cause-Effect Relationships
(1)
Low self-esteem

could cause
Depression

or
(2)
Depression

could cause

Low self-esteem

or
Low self-esteem
(3)
Distressing events
or biological
predisposition

could cause

and
Depression

Illusory Correlation
Illusory

Conceive

Correlation

the perception of a
relationship where
none exists

Adopt

Do not
adopt

Do not conceive

confirming
evidence

disconfirming
evidence

disconfirming
evidence

confirming
evidence

Two Random Sequences

Your chances of

being dealt
either of these
hands is
precisely the
same: 1 in
2,598,960.

Experimentation
Experiment

an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent

variables) to observe their effect on some behavior or mental
process (the dependent variable)
by random assignment of participants the experiment controls
other relevant factors

Experimentation
Single-Blind
Research participants dont know if they are getting the
placebo or active agent
Double-Blind Procedure
both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant
(blind) about whether the research participants have received the
treatment or a placebo
commonly used in drug-evaluation studies
Placebo
an inert substance or condition that may be administered instead
of a presumed active agent, to see if it triggers the effects believed
to characterize the active agent

Experimentation
Experimental Condition
the condition of an experiment that exposes participants to the
treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable
Control Condition

the condition of an experiment that contrasts with the

experimental treatment
serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the
treatment

Experimentation
Random Assignment
assigning participants to experimental and control conditions
by chance
minimizes pre-existing differences between those assigned to
the different groups

Experimentation
Independent Variable
the experimental factor that is manipulated
the variable whose effect is being studied
Dependent Variable

the experimental factor that may change in response to

manipulations of the independent variable
in psychology it is usually a behavior or mental process

Comparing Research Methods

Research Strategies
Subliminal tape content
Self-esteem

Tape label
Self-esteem

Memory

Memory

Design of the

subliminal tapes
experiment

Frequently Asked Questions About

Psychology

Can laboratory experiments illuminate everyday life?

Frequently Asked Questions About

Psychology
Does behavior depend on ones culture and
gender?

Culture - the shared ideas and behaviors that

one generation passes on to the next

Frequently Asked Questions About

Psychology

Why do psychologists study animals?

Is it ethical to experiment on animals?
Is it ethical to experiment on people?

Frequently Asked Questions About

Psychology
Is psychology
free of value
judgments?

Frequently Asked Questions About

Psychology

Is psychology potentially dangerous?

Tips for Studying Psychology

Distribute your time
Learn to think critically
In class, listen actively
Overlearn
Be a smart test-taker