Second Edition

Basics of Social Research:

Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches

by W. Lawrence Neuman

Chapter 6: Qualitative and Quantitative Sampling

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Population, Element, Sampling

Frame, Sample and Subject
Population (or target population)
entire group of people, events or things of interest that
the researcher wishes to investigate

Element
a single member of the population

Sampling Frame
a listing of all the elements in the population from which
the sample is drawn

Sample
a subset of the population

Subject
a single member of the sample

Relationship between
Population, Sampling Frame
and Sample

RelationshipbetweenSampleStatistics
andPopulationParameters

Advantages of Sampling
Less costs
cheaper than studying whole population

Less errors due to less fatigue

better results

Less time
quicker

Destruction of elements avoided

eg bulbs

Probability & Non-probability

Sampling
Probability Sampling
the elements in the population have some known
chance or probability of being selected as sample
subjects

Non-probability Sampling
the elements do not have a known or predetermined
chance of being selected as subjects

Probability Sampling

Sampling element: the unit of analysis or case in a population

Population: the name for the large general group of many cases from which
a researcher draws a sample and which is usually stated in theoretical terms
Target population: the name for the large general group of many cases from
which a sample is drawn and which is specified in very concrete terms
Sampling ratio: the number of cases in the sample divided by the number of
cases in the population or the sampling frame, or the proportion of the
population in the sample
Sampling frame: a list of cases in a population, or the best approximation of
it

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Probability Sampling
Parameter: a characteristic of the entire population
that is estimated from a sample
Statistic: a numerical estimate of a population
parameter computed from a sample

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Probability Sampling
Random sample: a type of sample in which the researcher uses a random number table
or similar mathematical random process so that each sampling element in the population
will have an equal probability of being selected
Sampling error : how much a sample deviates from being representative of a population

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Probability Sampling
Simple random sample
Sampling distribution: a distribution created by drawing many
random samples from the same population
Central limit theorem (CLT): a lawlike mathematical
relationship that states whenever many random samples are
drawn from a population and plotted, a normal distribution is
formed, and the center of such a distribution for a variable is
equal to its population parameter
Confidential interval: a range of values, usually a little higher
and lower than a specific value found in a sample, within
which a researcher has a specified and high degree of
confidence that the population parameter lies
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Probability Sampling
Simple random sampling
every element in the population has a known and
equal chance of being selected as a subject

Complex (or restricted) probability sampling

procedures to ensure practical viable alternatives to
simple random sampling, at lower costs, and greater
statistical efficiency

Simple Random Sampling

Is the most representative of the population for
most purposes
Disadvantages are:
Most cumbersome and tedious
The entire listing of elements in population frequently
unavailable
Very expensive
Not the most efficient design

Simple Random Sampling..

Cont..

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The table shows a sampling frame has 100 elements

Simple Random Sampling..

Cont..
Random Number
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09429

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52636

Random number table next to the

figure shows 10 selected as a
subject in the sample of
figures 11, 53, 80, 13, 75, 07, 05, 77, 4
2 and 57.

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The table shows the 10 items were selected to serve

as subjects in the sample based on a random number table.

Probability Sampling
Systematic sampling: a
type of random sample in
which a researcher selects
every kth (e.g., 12th) case in the
sampling frame using a
sampling interval
Sampling interval: the
inverse of the sampling
ratio, which is used in
systematic sampling to
select cases
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SystematicSampling
Every nth element in the population starting with
a randomly chosen element
Example:
Want a sample of 35 households from a total of 260
houses. Could sample every 7th house starting from
a randomly chosen number from 1 to 10. If that
random number is 7, sample 35 houses starting with
7th house (14th house, 21st house, etc)
Possible problem is that there could be systematic
bias. eg every 7th house could be a corner house,
with different characteristics of both house and
dwellers.

Probability Sampling
Stratified sampling: a type of random sample in
which the researcher first identifies a set of mutually
exclusive and exhaustive categories, then uses a random
selection method to select cases for each category

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StratifiedRandomSampling
Comprises sampling from populations segregated
into a number of mutually exclusive sub-populations
or strata. Eg
University students divided into juniors, seniors, etc
Employees stratified into clerks, supervisors, managers,
etc

Homogeneity within stratum and heterogeneity

between strata
Statistical efficiency greater in stratified samples
Sub-groups can be analysed
Different methods of analysis can be used for
different sub-groups.

StratifiedRandomSampling Example
Stratum
Clerks
Middle Managers
Top Managers

Motivation Level
Low
Very high
Medium

Combined X would not discrimate among

groups
Stratified Sampling
Proportionate sampling
Disproportionate sampling

Proportionate&Disproportionate
StratifiedRandomSampling

StratifiedRandomSampling Example
Stratum
Clerks
Middle Managers
Top Managers

Motivation Level
Low
Very high
Medium

Combined X would not discrimate among

groups
Stratified Sampling
Proportionate sampling
Disproportionate sampling

Probability Sampling
Cluster sampling: a type of random sample that uses multiple stages
and is often used to cover wide geographic areas in which aggregated
units are randomly selected then samples are drawn from the sampled
aggregated units, or clusters

Probability proportionate to size (PPS): an adjustment made

in cluster sampling when each cluster does not have the same number
of sampling elements

Random-digit dialing (RDD): a method of randomly selecting

cases for telephone interviews that uses all possible telephone numbers as
a sampling frame

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ClusterSampling
Take clusters or chunks of elements for study
Eg, sample all students in MGMT 303 and MGMT
304 to study the characteristics of Management
Science majors

Advantage of cluster sampling is lower costs

Statistically it is less efficient than other
probability sampling procedures discussed so
far
Area Sampling:
Cluster sampling confined to a particular area
Eg, sampling residents of a particular locality,
county, etc

Probability Sampling
Hidden populations
Victims of sex trafficking
Illicit drug users

How large should a

sample be?
Degree of accuracy
Degree of diversity
# of variables
Small populations
larger sampling ratio

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Drawing Inferences
Inferential statistics: a
branch of applied mathematics
or statistics based on a random
sample. It lets a researchers
make precise statements about
the level of confidence he or
she has in the results of a
sample being equal to the
population parameter

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Nonprobability Sampling
Convenience (Haphazard) sampling: a type of nonrandom
sample in which the researcher selects anyone he or she happens to come
across

Quota sampling: a type of nonrandom sample in which the

researcher first identifies general categories into which cases or people
will be selected, then he or she selects a predetermined number of cases
in each category

Purposive sampling: a type of nonrandom sample in which the

researcher uses a wide range of methods to locate all possible cases of a
highly specific and difficult-to-reach population

Quota sampling
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Nonprobability Sampling

Snowball sampling: a type of nonrandom sample in which the researcher

begins with one case, then, based on information about interrelationships
from that case, identifies other cases, and then repeats the process again and
again
Deviant case sampling: a type of nonrandom sample, especially used by
qualitative researchers, in which a researcher selects unusual or
nonconforming cases purposely as a way to provide greater insight into
social processes or a setting
Sequential sampling: a type of nonrandom sample in which a researcher
tries to find as many relevant cases as possible, until time, financial
resources, or his or her energy are exhausted, or until there is no new
information or diversity from the cases

Copyright Allyn and Bacon 2008

Non-probability Sampling
Convenience sampling
Survey whoever is easily available
Used for quick diagnosis of situations
Simplest and cheapest
Least reliable

Purposive sampling
Judgement sampling
Snowball sampling
Quota sampling

Judgement Sampling
Involves the choice of subjects who are in
the best position to provide the information
required
Experts opinions could be sought
Eg, Doctors surveyed for cancer causes

Snowball Sampling
Used when elements in population have specific
characteristics or knowledge, but are very
difficult to locate and contact.
Initial sample group can be selected by
probability or non-probability methods, but new
subjects are selected based on information
provided by initial subjects.
Eg, used to locate members of different stakeholder
groups regarding their opinions of a new public works
project.

Quota Sampling

Quotas for numbers or proportion of

people to be sampled, established.
Examples:
1) survey for research on dual career families:
50% working men and 50% working women
surveyed.
2) Women in management survey: 70%
women surveyed and 30% men surveyed.

Chapter Summary
Types of
Nonprobability
Samples

Principle

Convenience

Get any cases in any manner that is convenient

Quota

Get a present number of cases in each of several

predetermined categories that will reflect the diversity of the
population, using haphazard methods

Purposive

Get all possible cases that fir particular criteria, using

various methods

Snowball

Get cases using referrals from one or a few cases, and then
referrals from those cases, and so forth

Deviant Case

Get cases that substantially differ from the dominant pattern

(a special type of purposive sample)

Sequential

Get cases until there is no additional information or new

characteristics (often used with other sampling methods)
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Chapter Summary
Types of
Probability
Samples

Technique

Simple Random

Create a sampling frame for all cases, then select cases using a
purely random process (e.g., random-number table or computer
program)

Stratified

Create a sampling frame for each of several categories of

cases, draw a random sample from each category, then combine
the several samples

Systematic

Create a sampling frame, calculate the sampling interval l/k,

choose a random starting place, then take every l/k case

Cluster

Create a sampling frame for larger cluster units, draw a

random sample of the cluster units, create a sampling frame for
cases within each selected cluster unit, then draw a random
sample of cases, and so forth
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Choice Points in Sampling

Design