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Physiology II
Bio 132
Homeostasis
A great deal of energy is spent trying to maintain
homeostasis.
the ability to maintain a relatively stable internal
environment in an ever-changing world.
Negative Feedback
In negative feedback systems, the output shuts
off the original stimulus
This makes up 99% of the homeostatic
feedback loops.
Examples include regulation of : body
temperature, body pH, blood glucose levels,
blood pressure, body calcium levels.
Prevents large fluctuations and keeps the internal
environment relatively stable
Negative Feedback
Figure 1.5
Positive Feedback
In positive feedback
systems, the output
enhances or
exaggerates the
original stimulus.
Less than 1% of the
feedback loops.
Figure 1.6
Positive Feedback
Endocrine System
Hormones
Hormones:
Regulate the metabolic function of other cells
Alter plasma membrane permeability ( insulin)
Stimulate protein synthesis (GH)
Activate or deactivate enzyme systems
(GHRH,GHIH)
Induce secretory activity (Prolactin)
Stimulate mitosis (FSH)
Tend to have prolonged effects
Are classified as amino acid-based hormones, or steroids ( lipid
based)
Eicosanoids leukotrienes and prostaglandins
Hormone Action
Hormones alter target cell activity by one of two
mechanisms
Second messengers involving:
Amino acidbased hormones cannot pass through
the membrane.
They attach to a specific regulatory G protein on
surface of cell membrane.
This sets off a series of steps that can activate or inhibit
numerous functioning enzymes in the cell.
Figure 16.2a
Steroid Hormones
Figure 16..3
Steroid Hormones
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Endocrine glands
no ducts, release hormones into tissue fluids
such as the blood.
Rich blood supply to distribute hormones.
intracellular effects, alter target cell metabolism
Endocrine Organs
Hypothalamus
Controls many endocrine glands:
regulates the endocrine system through its direct
connection to the pituitary gland
Neurohypophysis
Posterior Pituitary
Neurohypophysis
posterior lobe (neural
tissue) and the
infundibulum
Receives hormones
from the hypothalamus.
Hormones are stored,
and released
Oxytocin and ADH
Oxytocin
Oxytocin is a strong stimulant of uterine
contraction
During labor increasing levels leads to
increased intensity of uterine contractions.
Regulated by a positive feedback mechanism
PITOCIN is a synthetic form used to induce labor
Oxytocin
Antidiuretic Hormone
AKA. Vasopressin is released in response to low
blood pressure, dehydration and high solute
concentration in the hypothalamus.
ADH helps to prevent dehydration by:
ADH stimulates thirst
ADH targets aquaporins in the kidney to
increase water permeability.
This will increase blood volume which increases
BP
Figure 16.5
Anterior Pituitary
Adenohypophysis anterior lobe, made up of
glandular tissue derived from the oral mucosa
during embryologic development.
Synthesizes and secretes a 6 major
hormones
There is a vascular connection via the
hypophyseal portal system
The vascular anatomical connection provides an a
means of delivering hypothalamic hormones directly
to the anterior pituitary.
Hypothalamic hormones avoid general circulation
allowing smaller amounts of hormones to be
delivered in a fraction of the time.
Gigantism
Excessive growth
hormone before the
growth plates fuse.
Good for basketball
Bad for horse racing.
Acromegaly
To much GH usually
after the growth
plates have fused.
Results in great
wrestlers.
Dwarfism
Hyposecretion of GH
May require GH
replacement therapy
Thyroid Gland
The largest endocrine
gland, located in the
anterior neck, consists of
two lateral lobes
connected by a median
tissue mass called the
isthmus
Its rich blood supply reflect
its importance.
Thyroid Gland
Thyroid follicles
lined with simple cuboidal epithelial (follicular
cells) that secretes two hormones, T3 and T4
T4 : 98% and relatively inactive.
T3 :cells convert T4 into this form which is much
more active.
Figure 16.8
Thyroid Hormone
Thyroid hormone (TH) action is like turning up the
thermostat.
TH causes:
bodys metabolic rate and O2 consumption
Calorigenic effect - heat production with increased ATP
consumption.
heart rate, contraction strength blood pressure and
respiratory rate
by enhancing norepinephrine and epinephrine
actions.
Endemic goiter
Thyroid Histology
Calcitonin
Parafollicular cells produce calcitonin:
Calcitonin:
Inhibits osteoclast activity (breaks down bone
releasing calcium from the bone matrix)
Stimulates calcium uptake and incorporation
into the bone matrix by increasing osteoblast
activity.
Regulated by a blood (calcium ion concentration
in the blood) negative feedback mechanism
Antagonist to parathyroid hormone (PTH)
Parathyroid Glands
Tiny glands
embedded in the
posterior aspect of
the thyroid
Chief (principal) cells
secrete PTH
(parathyroid hormone)
PTH regulates calcium
balance in the blood
Figure 16.11
Adrenal Cortex
Figure 16.12a
Adrenal Cortex
Different corticosteroids are produced in
each of the three layers
Zona glomerulosa mineralocorticoids
(chiefly aldosterone)
Zona fasciculata glucocorticoids
(chiefly cortisol)
Zona reticularis gonadocorticoids
(chiefly androgens) testosterone in males and
estrogen in females
Adrenocorticotropic Hormone
(ACTH) (Corticotropin)
Produced by the Anterior Pituitary.
Triggered by hypothalamic corticotropinreleasing hormone (CRH)
Stimulates the adrenal cortex to release
corticosteroids and mineralocorticoids.
ACTH is stimulated by
fever,
hypoglycemia,
various stressors
Mineralocorticoids
Regulate the electrolyte concentrations of
extracellular fluids
Aldosterone most important mineralocorticoid
Maintains Na+ balance by reducing excretion of Na+
from the body while increasing K+ excretion.
Aldosterone secretion is stimulated by:
Rising blood levels of K+
Low blood Na+
Decreasing blood volume or pressure
Glucocorticoids (Cortisol)
Stress on body causes hypothalamus to release
CRHACTH targets adrenal cortex to release
Cortisol: Cortisol
targets liver and muscle cells:
Increases levels of the following in the blood to
ensure there is enough available fuel to deal with
stress.
glucose
fatty acids
amino acids
Gluconeogenesis (formation of glucose from noncarbohydrates)
Inhibit inflammation
Depressed the immune system
Cushing Disease
Cushing Disease :hyper secretion of ACTH or Cortisol
Results in moon face hunch back appearance.
Muscle wasting
Hyperglycemia
Depress cartilage and bone formation
Promote diseases of the cardiovascular, nervous and
gastrointestinal systems.
Increased blood pressure
Often medically induced as a result of patient given high dose
corticosteroids
For treatment of inflammatory, autoimmune and allergic medical
condition.
Cushing Disease
Cushing Disease
Adrenal Medulla
The adrenal medulla functions as an extension
of the sympathetic nervous system.
Under periods of stress a neuron from the
hypothalamus directly stimulates as the adrenal
medulla.
Since this is a direct neural connection the
adrenal medulla can release the catecholamines
(epinephrine and norepinephrine) immediately.
Catecholamines are the hormonal portion of the SNS
Functionally their effects on the body are the same.
Figure 16.15
Addison's Disease
Results from a
hyposecretion of ACTH or
an autoimmune disease
that damages the
adrenals.
Results in decreased
glucocorticoids and
mineralocorticoid release.
Results in hypotension
and hypoglycemia
Corticosteroid
replacement therapy
Clinical Question
What actions would be appropriate.
A) Order a head CT to observe any anomalies in
the cranium.
B) Blood work to look at levels of GH, LH,
insulin, ETC
C) Send him to an ophthalmologist for further
examination.
D) Set him up with your 6ft 2 sister and tell him
not to walk into any walls.
E) All of the above.
Endocrine Screen
Hyperglycemia / Hypoglycemia
Poly /glucosurea
Temp. intolerance (hot vs. cold)
Changes in heart rate / palpitations
Changes in physical features
Skin changes, excessive abnormal hair growth, Body Fat
distribution