1

The leader
(trait, style,
behavior, vision,
charisma)
The led (follower)
(motivations,
readiness, attitudes)

The task
(from holistic to
reductionism,
needing discretion
or direction)

The organization
(structural, political, moral purpose)

Contingency Theory of
Leadership

Contingency theory of leadership

assumes that there is no one best
way to lead. Effective leadership
depends on the leaders and
followers characteristics as well as
other factors in the leadership
situation.
2

Central Features of the Contingency

Theory of Leadership

Best way: there is no one best way to lead.

Leadership style: Different leadership styles
are appropriate for different situations.
Middle ground: The contingency theory
stresses the views that (a) there is some
middle ground between the existence of
universal principles of leadership that fit all
situations and (b) each situation is unique
and therefore must be studied and treated
as unique.
3

Central Features of the Contingency

Theory of Leadership (Cont.)

Focus: The contingency theories of

leadership we studied focus on three
variables: (a) leaders style; (b)
followers motivation and skill; and (c)
the nature of the task.
Adaptability of leadership style: For an
individual leader, this theory assumes
that leadership is changeable and should
be variable for different situations.
4

Tannenbaum-Schmidts Continuum
of Leader Behavior
(Democratic)
(Authoritarian)]
Relationships Oriented
Oriented
Area of Freedom
for Subordinates

Task

Source of
Authority

Leader
permits
subordinat
es
to function
within
limits
defined
by superior

Leader
defines
limits;
asks
group
to make
decision

Leader
presents
problem,
gets
suggestions,
and makes
decision

Leader
presents
tentative
decision
subject
to
change

Leader
presents
idea
and
invites
questions

Leader
sells
decisio
n

Leader
makes
decision
and
announce
it

The Leadership Grid

Concern for People

High 1,9
9,9
Country Club Management
8
Thoughtful attention to the needs
of the people for satisfying
7
relationships leads to a
comfortable, friendly organization
6
atmosphere and work tempo

Team Management
Work accomplishment is from
committed people;
interdependence through a
common stake in organization
purpose leads to relationships of
trust and respect

Middle-of-the-road Management
5
5,5
Adequate organization performance is possible through
4
balancing the necessity to get work out while
maintaining morale of people at a satisfactory level.
3
Impoverished Management
Authority-Compliance Management
Exertion of minimum effort to get required
Efficiency in operations results from arranging
2
work done is appropriate to sustain
conditions of work in such a way that human
organization membership.
elements interfere to a minimum degree
1
1,1
9,1
Low
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Low
Concern for Results
High

Fiedlers Leadership Contingency

Model
Task-oriented style
style

Relationships-oriented

Task-oriented

considerate style

Favorable leadership
situation

Situation intermediate
in favorable lenses for
leader

Unfavorable leadership
situation

Fiedlers Leadership Contingency Model

(Cont.)
Leaders Motivational Situational Favorableness
Outcome
System
Major variables
In Fiedlers
Contingency
Effectiveness
Theory

Leadership Style

1. Leader-Member
Relationships
2. Task Structure
3. Leaders Position
Power

Fiedlers Leadership Contingency

Model(Cont.)
Synthesis of the Fiedler Contingency Model
Performance
Good

Poor

Task-oriented
Relationship-oriented

Favorable

Moderate

Category
Leader- member
relations
Task structure

I
Good

II
III
Good Good

IV
Good

High

High

Low

Position power

Strong

Low

Weak Strong Weak

Unfavorable

VI
Poor

High
Strong

VII
Poor
High
Weak

VIII
Poor
Low
Strong

Poor
Low
Weak

Source: Stephen P. Robbins, Organizational Behavior, 6 th ed. (Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: PreTice Hall, 1993), P. 375.

Vroom-Yettens Contingency Model

Figure 5-5 Schematic representation of variables used in leadership
research
Reprinted from Leadership and Decision-Making by Victor H. Vroom and Philip W. Yetton by
permission of the University of Pittsburgh Press. 1973 by University of Pittsburgh Press

Situational variables (1)

Organizational (4)
effectiveness
Leader behavior(3)

Personal attributes(2)

Situational variables(1a)

Is there a

Do I have

Is the

quality requirement such

that one solution is likely
to be more
rational than
another?

sufficient
information
to make a
high quality
decision?

problem
of decision
structured? by subordinates
critical to
effective implementation?

Is acceptance

Do subordinates

Is conflict

share the organizational goal

to be obtained
in solving this
problem?

among subordinates likely

in preferred
solutions?

10

House-Mitchells Path-Goal Theory

Causal Variables

Moderator Variables

Outcome

Variables

Relationship of
Variables in the
Path-Goal Theory

Leader Behavior
Subordinate Characteristics Satisfaction
Directive
Ability
Motivation
supportive
Locus of Control
Effort
participative
Needs and Motives
Performance
Achievement-Oriented
Environmental Forces
The task
Work Group
Authority System

11

House-Mitchells Path-Goal Theory

Figure 2.4 Houses Path-Goal Theory
Situations
Ambiguous
Roles
Stressful
Boring Tasks

Leadership
style
Directive

Supportive

Leaders
Competent
Subordinates
Unstructured
Tasks

Achievement
Oriented

Participative

Path

Leadership
Actions
Guidance
Procedures
Welfare,
Supportive
Climate
Goal
Accomplishment
Challenging
Goals and
Standards
Participation
in Decision
Making
Goal

12

Blanchard and Herseys Theory of Situational

Leadership
Task Behavior---The extent to which the leader engages in
defining roles is telling what, how, when, where, and if more
than one person who is to do what in:

Goal-setting
Organizing
Establishing time lines
Directing
Controlling

Relationship BehaviorThe extent to which a leader engages in

two-way (multi-way) communication, listening, facilitating
behaviors, and providing socioemotional support

Giving support
Communicating
Facilitating interactions
Active listening
Providing feedback

13

Blanchard and Herseys Theory of Situational

Leadership (Cont.)

Decision Styles
1.
2.

3.

4.

Leader-made decision
Leader-made decision with Dialogue
and/or Explanation
Leader/follower made decision or
follower-made decision with
encouragement from leader
Follower-made decision
14

Blanchard and Herseys Theory of Situational

Leadership (Cont.)
Leadership Behavior

S3 (Participation)
Relationship Behavior
(Supportive Behavior)

(High) Share ideas and facilitate

in decision making
High relationship
Low task
Low relationship
low task

S4 (Delegating)

S2 (Selling)
Explain decision and
provide opportunity
for clarification
High Task
High Relationship
High task
Low relationship

S1(Telling)

Turn over responsibility Provide specific

for decisions and
instructions and closely
implementation
supervise performance

(Low)
(Low)

Task Behavior
(Directive Behavior)

(High)

15

Blanchard and Herseys Theory of Situational

Leadership (Cont.)
Ability: has the necessary knowledge, experience, and skill
Willingness: has the necessary confidence, commitment, motivation
Follower Readiness
High
Moderate
Low
R4
R3
R2
R1
Able and
Able but
Unable but
Unable and
Willing
Unwilling
Willing
Unwilling
or Confident
or Insecure
or Confident
or Insecure
Follower Directed
Leader Directed
When a leader behavior is used appropriately with its corresponding level of
readiness, it is termed a High Probability Match. The following are descriptors
that can be useful when using situational leadership for specific applications.

S1
Telling
Guiding
Directing
Establishing

S2
Selling
Explaining
Clarifying
Persuading

S3
Participating
Encouraging
Collaborating
Committing

S4
Delegating
Observing
Monitoring
Fulfilling

16

Table 2.3

Contingency and Situational Theories and Models

Theories

Situational Variables

Fiedlers Contingency Theory The Quality of leader-subordinates relations

The leaders position power
The degree of task structure
Houses Path-Goal Theory
The subordinates
The environment
Hersey and Blanchards
Subordinated maturity
Situational Leadership
Theory
Blake and Moutons
All situations
Five styles
Leadership Grid
Vroom and Yettons
Decision quality importance
Decision Model
Leaders possession of relevant information

followers as a

Leadership Styles
Task-oriented
Relationship-oriented
Directive, Supportive
Participative, Achievement-oriented
Telling, Sharing, Participating,
Delegating

AI (you solve the problem)

AII (obtain info, then solve the prob.)

Degree of structure contained in problem

CI (share with individual followers, obtain
Importance of subordinates acceptance of
info, you decide)
the decision
Probability that subordinates will accept the
CII (share with followers as a group,
leaders decision
obtain collective info, you decide)
The importance of shared purpose and goals
GII (share the problems with
The amount of conflict among subordinates

group, decide together)

17

An overview of research

Ultimately, all studies which inquire into the relationship

between leadership effectiveness, on one hand, and
other factors, on the other, belong to the category of
contingency theory of leadership.
Quantitative methods are used in this line of research.
This line of research will
continue. What we need
is a more comprehensive
model to synthesize
the research.

18

Questions for discussion

To what extent do you identify with

the contingency of leadership? Why?
What is the implication for
leadership if we view from the
contingency perspective?
In your judgment, what are the
strengths and limitations of the
contingency theory of leadership?
19

Contributions of the Contingency Theory

of Leadership

It moves beyond the assumption of the

best way to lead and indicates that the
effectiveness of leadership is the match
between leaders style and situational
factors. It is an optimistic approach.
It provides a useful framework to
synthesize the research on leadership.

20

Criticism of Blanchard and Herseys

Situational Model (Bolman & Deal, 1991,
pp. 419-420)

It fails to distinguish between support for a person and

support for specific actions. (Does it mean that When
children are unmotivated and unskilled, parents and
teachers should provide high discretion and low support
until they shape up?)
It oversimplifies the options available to leaders and
the range of situations that leaders encounter.
It also neglects the Pygmalion effect (the self- fulfilling
prophecy).
It makes an illusory promise to make leaders lives less
confusing and perplexing, and has come to become a
secular religion in leadership theory.

21

A Joke: Do we use the model?

A major corporation was developing a new

management training program for a group of
some 2,000 technical managers. A task force with
representatives from two divisions in the company
came together to decide what should be taught.
The representatives from division A had
participated in Managerial Grid seminars. They
know in their hearts that the grid was the one best
way and that it should be the foundation of the
seminar. The managers in division B had attended
situational management seminars, and their faith
in the situational model was equally unshakable.

22

A Joke: Do we use the model? (cont.)

Initially, the two sides engaged in polite talk and rational

argument. When that failed, the conversation gradually
became more heated. Eventually, the group found itself
hopelessly deadlocked. An outside consultant came in to
mediate the dispute. She listened while the
representatives from each division reviewed the
conversation. The consultant then said to the group, Im
impressed by the passion on both sides. Im curious about
one thing. If you all believe so deeply in these models and
if it makes a difference which models someone learns,
why cant I see any difference in the behavior of the two
groups? Stunned silence fell over the room. Finally one
member said, You know, I think hes right. We dont use
the damn models, we just preach them. That was the end
of the impasse.

23