ENGINEERING

MATERIALS
E.M.E

Hardness Resistance (

to

indentation/penetration

Toughness () - Ability to withstand

impact loads

Resilience ( )

- Ability of a
material to return back to its original shape after
deformation

Stiffness()

- Ability of a material to stand

rigid on application of load

Hardness is the resistance of a

material to plastic deformation.
There are many types of hardness
corresponding to the manner in
which forces are applied (rebound
hardness, scratch hardness,
indentation hardness)
Toughness is the amount of energy
the material absorbs per unit volume
before it breaks.

Hardness - "Hardness describes how much energy it

takes to deform (stretch, compress, bend, etc.) a material."
Toughness - "Toughness describes how much total
energy has to be used before a material breaks"
Hardness and Toughness
Resilience - "Resilience is the ability of a material to
absorb energy when it is deformed elastically, and release
that energy upon unloading. Proof resilience is defined
as the maximum energy that can be absorbed within the
elastic limit, without creating a permanent distortion."
Resilience
Stiffness - "Stiffness is the rigidity of an object the
extent to which it resists deformation in response to an
applied force."

Q.03:-BodyCenteredCubic(BCC)
Not close packed - atoms at corners and body center of cube. # atoms/unit cell = 2.
Coordination number = 8 less efficient packing (68%)
The atoms are only in contact along the body diagonal.
For a unit cell edge length a, length body diagonal = a(3)1/2. Therefore 4r = a(3)1/2

Examples of BCC structures include one form of Fe, V, Cr, Mo, W.

Q.NO3:-

Q.NO

 Q.6:
Ductile &
Brittle
transition:At low temperatures some metals that
would be ductile at room temperature
become brittle. This is known as a ductile
to brittle transition.

The ductile to brittle transition temperature

is strongly dependant on the composition of
the metal. Steel is the most commonly used
metal that shows this behaviour.
For some steels the transition temperature
can be around 0C, and in winter the
temperature in some parts of the world can
be below this. As a result, some steel
structures are very likely to fail in winter.

ENDURANCE LIMIT
Whenever

a cyclic (repetitive) load is

applied on the material, If the
material shows no evidence of
fracture then this property of the
material is called, Endurance Limit

While

if the material shows any

evidence of fracture during the
loading this property is called,
Fatigue Limit

ENDURANCE LIMIT
The

conventional fatigue testing has

been concerned primarily with the
testing of specimens with smooth
surfaces under the conditions of
rotating-bending or uniaxial tensioncompression cycling.
The results of these tests are
presented in the form of plots of
stress verses the number N of stress
cycles required to cause the fracture.

ENDURANCE LIMIT
These

plots are called -N diagrams, it

was suggested by Whler. These
diagrams are also called, S-N
diagrams in some literatures. It is
shown in the figure.

Usually

in mild steel or certain other

steels, an endurance limit is observed.

The fatigue life is estimated by S-N curve

What is S-N curve?
The S-N curve is very useful way to visualize
time to failure for a specific material . The "S-N"
means stress verse cycles to failure,

Q.NO 8:CORROSION AND OXIDATION

CONTROL:-

:Q.NO 9:ALLOY STEEL AND PURPOSE

Purpose of alloying
1.

strengthing of the ferrite ;improve corrosion resistance;better

hardenability;grain
size
control;greater
strength;improve
ductility;improve
toughness;better
wear
resistance;improve
cutting ability;improve mechinability

Q.NO 10:

Tool Steels
A variety of alloy steels that are particularly well-suited to be
made into tools.
Their suitability comes from their distinctive hardness, resistance
to abrasion, their ability to hold a cutting edge, and/or their
resistance to deformation at elevated temperatures (redhardness).
Tool steel is generally used in a heat-treated state.
Carbon content between 0.7% and 1.4%,

Tool Steels - Types

Water-hardening grades
Air-hardening grades
Cold-working grades
Shock resisting grades
High speed grades
Hot-working grades

Brass

Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc with the zinc

content varying from 5 to 54%.

Small amounts of lead, tin or aluminium also are

added to impart specific properties to brass

The important properties of brass are

Good strength, ductility and formability
Good machinability
Good electrical and thermal conductivity

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Brass

A wide variety of brasses are in use today.

Solubility of zinc in -solid solution increases from
32.5% at 900C to about 38% at 455C.

Copper and the -solid solution are having FCC

structures, while the -solid solution is of BCC
structure.

In the -phase, copper and zinc atoms are randomly

dispersed at lattice points.

45

Bronzes

The term, bronze represents

alloys of copper with
elements other than zinc.

The simplest bronze contains 88% Cu with 12% tin.

Other alloying elements like phosphorous, lead,
nickel etc. are also added to obtain favorable
properties.

Other than tin, elements like aluminium, silicon or

46

Bronzes

Bronzes are softer and weaker than steel.

Corrosion resistance, heat and electric conductivity are
also better than steel, while the cost is higher than
steels.

Compared to brasses, these are having lower coefficient

of friction, higher strength, toughness, corrosion
resistance and also higher cost.

Bronze is having good castability and anti-friction or

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Bronzes
Tin Bronze:
Gun metal:
Aluminium bronze:
Silicon bronze:
Beryllium bronze:

48

HeatTreatment
THE AMOUNT OF CARBON PRESENT IN PLAIN CARBON STEEL HAS
A PRONOUNCED EFFECT ON THE PROPERTIES OF A STEEL AND ON
THE SELECTION OF SUITABLE HEAT TREATMENTS TO ATTAIN
CERTAIN DESIRED PROPERTIES.

Define

Heat treatment may be defined as:

An operation or combination of operations

involving

Heating and cooling of a metal/alloy in solid state

to obtain desirable

Purpose

Cause relief of internal stresses developed during cold working,

welding, casting, forging etc.

Harden and strengthen metals.

Improve machinability.

Change grain size

Soften metals for further (cold) working as in wire drawing or cold

rolling.

Purpose

Improve ductility and toughness

Increase , heat, wear and corrosion resistance of materials.

Improve electrical and magnetic properties.

Homogenise the structure to remove coring .

Spheroidize tiny particales, such as those of FeC in steel, by

diffusion.

Annealing

STEEL IS ANNEALED TO REDUCE THE HARDNESS, IMPROVE MACHINE

ABILITY, FACILITATE COLD-WORKING, PRODUCE A DESIRED
MICROSTRUCTURE.
FULL ANNEALING IS THE PROCESS OF SOFTENING STEEL BY A
HEATING AND COOLING CYCLE, SO THAT IT MAY BE BENT OR CUT
EASILY.
IN ANNEALING, STEEL IS HEATED ABOVE THE TRANSFORMATION
TEMPERATURE TO FORM AUSTENITE, AND COOLED VERY SLOWLY,
USUALLY IN THE FURNACE.

3.5 Spheroidization annealing

Spheroidization annealing consists of heating, soaking and

cooling, invariably very slowly to produce spheroidal pearlite
or globular form of carbides in steels.

To improve the machinability of the annealed

hypereutectoid steel spheroidize annealing is applied.

Hypereutectoid steels consist of pearlite and cementite. The

cementite forms a brittle network around the pearlite. This
presents difficulty in machining the hypereutectoid steels.

This process will produce a spheroidal or globular form of a

carbide in a ferritic matrix which makes the machining easy.

Prolonged time at the elevated temperature will completely

break up the pearlitic structure and cementite network. The
structure is called spheroidite.

Spheroidizing process applied at a

temperature below and above the LCT.

Aims Of Spheroidization Annealing:

minimum hardness

maximum ductility

maximum machinability

maximum softness

Purpose of full annealing

To relieve internal stresses

To reduce hardness and increase ductility

For refining of grain size

For making the material having homogeneous chemical

composition

For making the material suitable for high machining processes

To make steel suitable for undergoing other heat treatment

processes like hardening, normalizing etc.

NORMALIZING

The normalizing of steel is carried out by heating

above the UCT (Upper Critical Temperature) to
single phase austenitic region to get homogeneous
austenite, soaking there for some time and then
cooling it in air to room temperature.

The austenitising temperature range are:

For

hypoeutectoid steels and

eutectoid steel

For

Ac3 + (40-60oC)

hypereutectoid steels

Acm + (30-50oC)

Figure below shows the normalizing

temperatures for hypoeutectoid and
hypereutectoid steels

AIMs OF NORMALIZING

To produce a harder and stronger steel than full

annealing

To improve machinability

To modify and/or refine the grain structure

To obtain a relatively good ductility without reducing

the hardness and strength

Improve dimensional stability

Produce a homogeneous microstructure

Reduce banding

Provide a more consistent response when hardening

or case hardening

COMPARISON OF ANNEALING AND

NORMALIZING

The metal is heated to a higher temperature and then removed

from the furnace for air cooling in normalizing rather than
furnace cooling.

In normalizing, the cooling rate is slower than that of a quenchand-temper operation but faster than that used in annealing.

As a result of this intermediate cooling rate, the parts will

possess a hardness and strength somewhat greater than if
annealed.

Fully annealed parts are uniform in softness (and

machinability) throughout the entire part; since the entire part
is exposed to the controlled furnace cooling. In the case of the
normalized part, depending on the part geometry, the cooling
is non-uniform resulting in non-uniform material properties
across the part.

Internal stresses are more in normalizing as compared to

annealing.

Grain size obtained in normalizing is finer than in annealing.

Normalizing is a cheaper and less time-consuming process.

Comparison of temperature
ranges in annealing and
normalizing

effect of annealing and normalizing on

ductility of steels
Annealing and normalizing do not present a
significant difference on the ductility of low
carbon steels. As the carbon content increases,
annealing maintains the % elongation around
20%. On the other hand, the ductility of the
normalized high carbon steels drop to 1 to 2 %
level.

ADVANTAGES OF NORMALIZING OVER

ANNEALING

Better mechanical properties

Lesser time-consuming

Lower cost of fuel and operation

ADVANTAGES OF ANNEALING OVER
NORMALIZING

Greater softness

Complete absence of internal stresses

which is a necessity in complex and
intricate parts

HARDENING

It is the process of heating the steel to proper austenitizing

temperature , soaking at this temperature to get a fine grained
and homogeneous austenite , and then cooling the steel at a rate
faster than its critical cooling rate.

OBJECTIVES OF HARDENING
The aims of hardening are:
1.

Main aim of hardening is to induce high hardness. The cutting

ability of a tool is proportional to its hardness.

2.

Many machine parts and all tools are hardened to induce high
wear resistance higher is the hardness , higher is the wear and
the abrasion resistance .For example ,gears, shaft.

3.

The main objective of hardening machine components made of

structural steel sis to develop high yield strength with good
toughness and ductility to bear high working stresses.