Prosig Report

Hardware
created by: Mustika Rizki
Fitriyanti

I.
Accelerometer

Accelerometer

What is an accelerometer?

What are accelerometer used for?

By measuring the amount of static

acceleration due to gravity, you can find out
the angle the device is tilted at with respect to
the earth. By sensing the amount of dynamic
acceleration, you can analyze the way the
device is moving.

It is a device that measure acceleration,

which is the rate of change of the velocity of
an object.
The measurement usually in meters per
second squared (m/s2) or in G-forces (g).
A single G-force for us here on planet
Earth
is equivalent to 9.8 m/s2, but this does vary
slightly with elevation (and will be a different
value on different planets due to variations
in
gravitational pull).
Accelerometers are useful for sensing
vibrations in systems or for orientation
applications.

Type of Accelerometer

Single Axis Accelerometer

Trixial Accelerometer

It measures acceleration in one dimention

It measures acceleration in classical 3

dimensional planes

How Accelerometer works based on design-type of

accelerators?

Mechanical Accelerometer

Capacitive Accelerometer

a mass attached to a spring suspended

inside an outer casing. When they accelerate,
the casing moves off immediately but the
mass lags behind and the spring stretches
with a force that corresponds to the
acceleration. The distance the spring
stretches (which is proportional to the
stretching force) can be used to measure the
force and the acceleration in a variety of
different ways.

if a moving mass alters the distance between

two metal plates, measuring the change in
their capacitance gives a measurement of the
force that's acting

How Accelerometer works based on design-type of

accelerators?
Piezoelectric Crystal
a crystal attached to a mass, so when the
accelerometer moves, the mass squeezes
the crystal and generates a tiny electric
voltage.

II. Microphones

Microphones

What are microphones used for?

Type of Microphones

It is used to measure variations in

atmospheric pressure.

1.

Condenser Microphone

2.

Carbon Microphone

3.

Magnetic Microphone

4.

Pizoelectric Microphone

A microphone must be able to detect all of

the frequency around 20 Hz to 20kHz. Sound
pressure variations outside the frequency
range can be important to design engineers.

Condenser Microphone
This type of microphone is one of the
most widely used.
How it works?
As the diaphragm moves closer or further
away from the back plate the charge on
the plate changes. These changes in
charge are then converted to voltages.

III. Strain Gauges

Strain Gauges

What is Strain Gauges?

It is a transducer used for determining the
amount of stram or change in dimensions in
a material where stress is applied.
When the transducer is streched or strained,
its resistance changes.

The purpose of using Strain Gauges

The strain gauges are used for two main
purposes:
1) Measurement of strain:
Whenever any material is subjected to
high loads, they come under strain,
which can be measured easily with the
strain gauges. The strain can also be
used to carry out stress analysis of the
member.
2) Measurement of other quantities:
The principle of change in resistance due
to
applied force can also be calibrated to
measure a number of other quantities like
force, pressure, displacement, acceleration
etc since all these parameters are related
to each other. The strain gauges can
sense
the displacements as small as 5 m. They
are usually connected to the mechanical
transducers like bellows for measuring
pressure and displacement and other
quantities.

Strain Gauges

Since strain gauge is really sensitive with the

changes in temperature. The use of
wheatstone brige is needed to reduce the
effect of the temperature changes.
In a basic sense a strain gauge is simply a
long piece of wire. Gauges are mostly made
from copper or aluminium
When an electrical conductor is stretched
within the limits of its elasticity it will become
thinner and longer. This is because
resistance is a function of both cable length
and cable diameter.
The formula of Resistance of a wire

Type of Strain Gauges

1.

Thin Film Types

Used in a higher temperature
applications where they applied
directly to the surface of the structure

2.

Semiconductor Types
Used in preference to resistive foil
types when the strain is small. This
type is the most sensitive and fragile
strain gauge with the tempeture.

Strain Gauges Case Example

Resistance of a copper wire which has a resistivity of 1.8 x 10 -8 ohm metres, is 1 metre long and has a
cross sectional area of 2mm 2 would be

If the cable was then put under certain strain its length would extended to 2 metres, as it was
stretched longer it would get thinner, its cross sectional area would decrease. In this example to 0.5
mm2 the resistance now would be

The example above shows only the difference when the characteristics of the copper wire have
changed. The example merely shows how resistance changes with respect to length and cross
sectional area and demonstrates that strain gauges, by their very nature, exhibit small resistance
changes with respect to strain upon them.

The use of Wheatstone Bridge

These small resistance changes are very difficult to measure. So, in a practical sense, it is difficult
to measure a strain gauge, which is just a long wire.
To handle this situation, the use of Wheatstone Brige is needed.
Wheatstone bridge is a device used to measure an unknown electrical resistance. It works
by balancing two halves of a circuit, where one half of the circuit includes the unknown
resistance.

if R2, R3 and R4 are 10 ohms and if the measured signal voltage

between measurement points A and B was 0 Volts then the
resistance of Rx is

This implies a perfectly balanced bridge. In practice, because

the strain gauge goes through different strain levels its
resistance changes, the measured signal level between
measurement points A and B is not zero.

The use of Wheatstone Bridge

These small resistance changes are very difficult to measure. So, in a practical sense, it is difficult
to measure a strain gauge, which is just a long wire.
To handle this situation, the use of Wheatstone Brige is needed.
Wheatstone bridge is a device used to measure an unknown electrical resistance. It works
by balancing two halves of a circuit, where one half of the circuit includes the unknown
resistance.

if R2, R3 and R4 are 10 ohms and if the measured signal voltage

between measurement points A and B was 0 Volts then the
resistance of Rx is

This implies a perfectly balanced bridge. In practice, because

the strain gauge goes through different strain levels its
resistance changes, the measured signal level between
measurement points A and B is not zero.

Strain Gauges
The configurations that strain gauges can be used in are:
1.

Quarter Bridge is the most common strain gauge

configuration. As can be seen in Figure 4 it is
actually a three wire configuration. The rest of the
bridge as shown in Figure 2 is completed inside
the Prosig P8000 system.
Quarter Bridge uses three wires to allow for
accurate measurement of the actual voltage
across S1.
Half Bridge is not an often used strain gauge
configuration.
The rest of the bridge as shown in Figure 2 is
completed inside the Prosig P8000 system.
The main advantage of the Half Bridge configuration is
that both the strain gauges S1 and S2 can be attached
to the test piece, but perpendicular to each other.
Which allows for temperature compensation.

Strain Gauges

3.

Full bridge is used for situations where the fullest

degree of accuracy is required. The Full Bridge
configuration is a six wire system.
The Full Bridge configuration is the most accurate
in terms of temperature variation because it can
have two active gauges, S1 and S4. The gauges
can be configured with S1 and S4 in the direction
of interest on the test piece and S2 and S3
perpendicular to this. The reason for this
requirement is that strain gauges are often on long
wires and all wires have their own resistance.

Strain Gauges Rosette

Strain Gauges can be configured in a particular

pattern that allows for the calculation of the overall
strain component, this is often referred to as a strain
gauge rosette
These can be used to measure a complex strain, the
strain is complex because it has both amplitude and a
direction.

IV. DeciBel, Noise

Floor and Dynamic
Range

Decibel(dB)
It is a logarithmic unit of measurement that expresses the
magnitude of physical quantity relative to a reference level.
The mathematical definition is the ratio of a power value to a
reference power level.
The power ratio in decibels (dB) is 10 times base 10
logarithm
of the ratio of P1 and P0:
The Decibel is commonly used in acoustics to quantify sound
levels relative to a reference. The common decibel units used
in acoustics are:
dB(SPL)

Sound Pressure Level. Measurements

relative to 210-5 Pa.

dB(SIL)

Sound Intensity Level. Measurements

relative to 10-12 W/m2 which is
approximately the level of human hearing
in air.

dB(SWL)

dB Sound Power level. Measurements

relative to 10-12 W.

Noise Floor

In data acquisition and signal processing the noise floor is a measure of the summation of all the
noise
sources and unwanted signals generated within the entire data acquisition and signal processing
system.
The noise floor limits the smallest measurement that can be taken with certainty since any measured
amplitude cannot on average be less than the noise floor.
In summary, the noise floor is the level of background noise in a signal, or the level of noise
introduced
by the system, below which the signal thats being captured cannot be isolated from the noise.
In electronics and telecommunication, the decibel is often usedto express power or amplitude ratios in
order to quantify the gains or losses of individual circuits or components.
only signals above the noise floor can be measured
with any degree of certainty. In this case the signal
level of -100dB at 20KHz could be measured. If however,
the noise floor increased above the -120dB level then
it would become more difficult to measure this signal.

Dynamic Range and Resolution

The dynamic range of a data acquisition system is defined as the ratio between the minimum
and
maximum amplitudes that a data acquisition system can capture.
In practice most Analogue to Digital Converters (ADC) have a voltage range of 10V.
Sometimes
amplification may be applied to signals before they are input to an ADC in order to maximize the
input voltages within the available ADC range.
The noise floor of a measurement system is also limited by the resolution of the ADC system.
For
example, the noise floor of a 16-bit measurement system can never be better than -96dB and for
a
24-bit system the lower limit is limited to -144 dB. In practice, however, the noise floor will always
be higher than this due to electronic noise within the measurement system.