FISIOLOGI BIOTA LAUT

SKELETAL SYSTEM
September 19, 2016
deiske a. sumilat

What is the function of the

skeletal system?
Skeletal systems: Organ systems that provide
rigid supports skeletons against which
muscles can pull to create directed movements.
The skeletal system is a multifunctional system.
The skeletal system provides support, allows an
animal to move, and protects the internal organs
and soft parts of an animals body.
The skeletal system has both mechanical and
physiological functions
Mechanical functions include support, protection,
and movement.

What is the function of the

skeletal system?
The bones of the skeletal system provide the
rigid framework that supports the body.
Bones also protect internal organs such as
the brain, heart, lungs, and organs in the
pelvic area.
Muscles are anchored to bones and act as
levers at the joints, allowing for movement.
Physiological functions of the skeletal system
include the production of blood cells and the
supplying and storing of important minerals.

What are the three main types of skeletal systems?

The three main types of skeletal

systems are
1. hydrostatic skeleton,
2. exoskeleton, and
3. endoskeleton.

Type of skeletal systems

A hydrostatic skeleton consists of fluid
under pressure.
Cnidarians, annelids, and other soft-bodied
invertebrates have hydrostatic skeletons
consisting of a volume of fluid enclosed in a
body cavity surrounded by muscle
Hydras and planarians have a fluid-filled
gastrovascular cavity.
The body cavity, or coelom, of an
earthworm is also fluid-filled.

Type of skeletal systems

The exoskeleton is rigid and hard.
Mollusks have an exoskeleton made of calcium carbonate.
It grows with the animal during its entire lifetime.
Another type of exoskeleton common among insects and
arthropods is made from chitin. Chitin is a strong
flexible nitrogenous polysaccharide.
While it provides excellent protection and allows for a large
variety of movements, it does not grow with the animal.
When an animal out-grows its skeleton, it must shed its
skeleton and replace it with a larger one in a process
known as molting.
Many aquatic and certain terrestrial animals have an
exoskeleton.

What is the chemical composition

of chitin?
Chitin, found in the exoskeletons of insects and
other arthropods, is a glucosamine
polysaccharide with the formula of C 30H50O19N4 and a
molecular weight of 770.42.
The basic units of this substance are linked together
by condensation reactions to make up long chains.
Hydrogen bonds link the chains together and help
make chitin rigid and strong.
It is a white, amorphous, semitransparent mass that
is insoluble in common solvents like water and
alcohol.

Type of skeletal systems

An endoskeleton consists of bone and cartilage
and grows with the animal throughout its life.
It stores calcium salts and blood cells and
consists of hard or leathery supporting elements
situated among the soft tissues of an animal.
Although most common among vertebrates,
certain invertebrates such as sponges, sea stars,
sea urchins, and other echinoderms have an
endoskeleton of hard plates beneath their skin.
This type of skeletal system allows for a wider
range of movement than do the other two.

Endoskeleton
Which group of animals have a
skeleton that is entirely made of
cartilage?
The endoskeleton of sharks consists
entirely of cartilage.

Intermezooo
What are the major divisions of the
human skeleton?
The human skeleton has two major
divisions: the axial skeleton and the
appendicular skeleton.
The axial skeleton includes the bones of
the center or axis of the body.
The appendicular skeleton consists of the
bones of the upper and lower extremities.

Intermezooo
How much of the bodys calcium is
stored in bones?
Approximately 99 percent of all the calcium
found in the body is stored in bones.
Why is calcium important to the body?
Bones consist mainly of calcium. Calcium
plays an important role as a cofactor for
enzyme function, in maintaining cell
membranes, in muscle contraction, nervous
system functions, and in blood clotting.

Intermezooo
How strong is bone?
Bone is one of the strongest
materials found in nature. One cubic
inch of bone can withstand loads of
at least 19,000 pounds (8,626
kilograms), which is approximately
the weight of five standard-size
pickup trucks.

Intermezooo
Are there differences between
the male and female skeletons?
The male skeleton is generally larger
and heavier than the female skeleton.
The bones of the skull are generally
more graceful and less angular in the
female skeleton. A female also has a
wider, shorter breastbone and
slimmer wrists.

Intermezooo
Are there differences between the male
and female skeletons?
There are significant differences between the
pelvis of a female and a male, which are related
to pregnancy and childbirth.
The female pelvis is wider and shallower than
the male pelvis. Females have an enlarged
pelvic outlet and a wider, more circular pelvic
inlet. The angle between the pubic bones is
much sharper in males, resulting in a more
circular, narrower, almost heart-shaped pelvis.

Intermezooo
How many bones are in the human
body?
Babies are born with about 300 to 350
bones, but many of these fuse together
between birth and maturity to produce an
average adult total of 206.
Bone counts vary according to the method
used to count them, because a structure
may be treated as either multiple bones or
as a single bone with multiple parts.

Intermezooo
What are the major types of bones?
There are four major types of bones: long
bones, short bones, flat bones, and irregular
bones. The name of each type of bone
reflects the shape of the bone.
The shape of the bone is indicative of its
mechanical function.
Bones that do not fall into any of these
categories are sesamoid bones and
accessory bones.

Intermezooo
What is the longest bone in the
human body?
The femur, or thighbone, is the longest
bone in the body. The average femur is
18 inches (45.72 centimeters) long.
The longest bone ever recorded was
29.9 inches (75.95 centimeters) long. It
was from an 8-foot-tall (2.45 meters)
German who died in 1902 in Belgium.

Intermezooo
What is the structure of a typical
long bone?
The major parts of a long bone are:
epiphysis, epiphyseal plate,
metaphysis, diaphysis, medullary
cavity, articular cartilage, and
periosteum.

Intermezooo
What is the smallest bone in the
body?
The stirrup (stapes) in the middle ear
is the smallest bone in the body. It
weighs about 0.0004 ounces (0.011
grams).

Intermezooo
Where are blood cells formed in the skeletal
system?
Hematopoiesis (from the Greek hemato, meaning
blood and poiein, meaning to make), or red
blood formation, occurs in the red bone marrow in
adults.
Adult red marrow, found in the proximal epiphysis
(the ends) of the femur and humerus, some short
bones, and in the vertebrae, sternum, ribs, hip
bones, and cranium, is the site of production of all
red blood cells (erythrocytes), platelets, and certain
white blood cells.

Carbon in the Oceans

The oceanic CO2 is in balance with the atmospheric content of
the same gas.
For many years, the oceans have been alkaline, and acted as
an important store for the excess CO 2 released by human
activity.
Biological and chemical processes turn some of this CO 2 into
the calcium carbonate shells and skeletons of organisms, other
organic matter, and carbonate sediments.
However, the increasing CO2 concentration is beginning to
acidify the oceans, threatening shell and skeleton formation in
marine organisms, as acid tends to dissolve carbonates.
Further, some scientists fear that the rate at which the oceans
can continue to absorb CO 2 will soon slow down, further
aggravating global warming.

How are coral reefs formed and how

fast are they built?
Coral reefs grow only in warm, shallow water.
The calcium carbonate skeletons of dead corals
serve as a framework upon which layers of
successively younger animals attach themselves.
Such accumulations, combined with rising water
levels, slowly lead to the formation of reefs that
can be hundreds of meters deep and long.
The coral animal, or polyp, has a columnar form;
its lower end is attached to the hard floor of the
reef, while the upper end is free to extend into
the water

How are coral reefs formed and how

fast are they built?
A whole colony consists of thousands of individuals.
There are two kinds of corals, hard and soft,
depending on the type of skeleton secreted.
The polyps of hard corals deposit around
themselves a solid skeleton of calcium carbonate
(chalk), so most swimmers see only the skeleton of
the coral; the animal is in a cuplike formation into
which it withdraws during the daytime.
The major reef builder in Florida and Caribbean
waters, Montastrea annularis (star coral) requires
about 100 years to form a reef just 3 ft (1 m) high.

Coral
Any of various cnidarians that live
fixed to the ocean bottom, secrete
skeletons for support, and are usually
colonial.
The true corals lay down hard
skeletons of calcium carbonate
outside their bodies that eventually
form coral reefs.
Other coral groups include the sea
fans. See also cnidarians, sea fans,

Black corals
(order Antipatharia) also have strong skeletons
that can be carved
sea fans grow attached to the seabed and look
like exotic plants.
Unlike soft corals, they have a supporting
skeleton that provides a framework and allows
them to grow quite large.
It is made mainly of a exible, horny material
called gorgonin and consists of a rod that
extends down the inside of all except the
smallest branches.

What is the basic composition of a

sponge?
A sponge is supported by a skeleton made of hard crystals called
spicules whose shape and composition are important features in
taxonomy.
Calcareous sponges have spicules of calcium carbonates, the
material of marble and limestone.
The silica spicules of the hexactinellid, or glass, sponges are
formed into a delicate, glassy network.
Demosponges have siliceous spicules and a network of fibrous
protein, spongir, that is similar to collagen.
The demosponges are the source of natural household sponges,
which are made by soaking dead sponges in shallow water until all
the cellular material has decayed, leaving the spongin network
behind.
However, most sponges sold now for household use are plastic
and have nothing to do with real sponges.

 Sponges have hard skeletal elements called

spicules, which may be small and simple or large
and complex
Members of two groups (glass sponges and
demosponges) have skeletons composed of
silicaceous spicules made of hydrated silicon
dioxide
The spicules of calcareous sponges are made of
calcium carbonate.

Mollusks
Most mollusks have a head, a soft body
mass, and a muscular foot.
The foot is formed from the lower body surface
and helps it to move.
Mollusks have what is called a hydrostatic
skeleton-their bodies are supported by internal
fluid pressure rather than a hard skeleton.
The chemical CaCO3. It is the main constituent
of coral skeletons and mollusk shells,
limestone, and chalk.

Arthropods
Like land arthropods, all marine
forms have an external skeleton, they
all
have
an
external
skeleton
(exoskeleton), which is either thin and
exible or rigid and toughened by
deposits of calcium carbonate.
Members of the phylum Arthropoda are
characterized by jointed appendages
and an exoskeleton of chitin.

Arthropods
Marine arthropods absorb water rapidly
after molting to expand their new
protective covering. Those that can
remain hidden for hours or days, as they
are more vulnerable to predation until
their exoskeleton hardens.
A major group (phylum) of invertebrate
animals with jointed legs and a hard outer
skeleton. It includes crustaceans (crabs,
shrimp, and relatives), insects, spiders.

Foraminiferan
Foraminiferans

A group of
protists whose empty, chalky
skeletons area major part of
some deep-sea sediments.
They are animal-like (they feed
on other organisms) and include
both planktonic and bottomliving types.

Echinoderms
Echinoderms have radiating body parts, most appear
star-shaped, disc-shaped or spherical, and all have a
skeleton of calcium-carbonate plates under the skin.
The echinoderm skeleton is made of hard calciumcarbonate plates, which are fused to form a rigid shell (as
in urchins) or remain separate (as in starfish). Usually, it
also features spiny or knoblike extensions that project
from the body.
Sea cucumbers have minimal skeletons reduced to a
series of small, isolated plates. The skeleton comprises
small, multi-shaped plates.
STARFISH OR SEA STARS The skeleton is a layer of
plates (ossicles) embedded in the body wall.

FISH
Cartilaginous fishes such as sharks, rays, skates, and
chimaeras, whose skeleton is of cartilage, not bone.
At first glance, lampreys and hag fish could easily be mistaken for
eels due to their long, thin bodies and slimy, scaleless skin.
However, they lack a bony skeleton, and have only a simple exible
rod called a notochord running along the length of the body.
In lampreys, the mouth is in the center of a round oral disk armed
with small, rasping teeth.
SHARKS, RAYS, AND CHIMAERAS are often informally grouped
together as cartilaginous fish as they all have similar exible
skeletons.
The internal skeleton of all the fishes in this group is made from
exible cartilage. In some species, parts of the skull and skeleton
are strengthened by mineral deposits.

FISH
What are chondrichthyes?
Chondrichthyes are fishes that have
a cartilaginous skeleton rather than a
bony skeleton; they include such
organisms as sharks, skates, and
rays.

FISH
BONY FISHES EXCEED ALL OTHER VERTEBRATE groups both in number of
living species and in their abundance.
They have evolved into myriad shapes and sizes, suiting every aquatic
lifestyle and habitat and range from the shore to the deepest depths and
from polar seas to hot deep-sea vents.
Bony shes have an internal skeleton of bone, although that of a few
primitive groups is part cartilage.
The bony skeleton supports exible fins that allow them to move with far
greater precision than do the sti ns of cartilaginous fishes.
About one-third of bony fishes live only in fresh water, while the
remainder lives in the oceans or migrates between the two.
Like other vertebrate animals, bony fishes have a skull, backbone, and
ribs, but the skeleton also extends out into the fins as a series of exible
rays.

FISH
Like most sturgeon, this species
swims from the sea into large rivers to
spawn in gravelly areas.
These prehistoric-looking sh belong to
a primitive group in which only the
skull and some n supports are made
of bone.
The rest of the skeleton consists
mainly of cartilage.

Cytoskeleton
Cytoskeleton: The network of microtubules and
microfilaments that gives a eukaryotic cell its
shape and its capacity to arrange its organelles and
to move.
The cytoskeleton is the collective name for
protein filaments that play roles in cell division or in
maintaining the shapes of cells.
One such protein forms a ring structure that
constricts during cell division, whereas another
forms helical structures that extend down the
lengths of rod-shaped cells, helping maintain their
shapes.

The cytoskeleton is important in cell structure and movement

It supports the cell and maintains its shape.

It holds cell organelles and other particles
in position within the cell.
It moves organelles and other particles
around in the cell.
It is involved with movements of the
cytoplasm, called cytoplasmic streaming.
It interacts with extracellular structures,
helping anchor the cell in place.

There are three components of the eukaryotic cytoskeleton: microfilaments (smallest diameter), intermediate
filaments, and microtubules (largest diameter). These filaments have very different functions.

The microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules of the

cytoskeleton provide the cell with shape, strength, and movement.

What is the cytoskeleton and

what is its function?
The cytoskeleton is a structural feature of
eukaryotic cells that was revealed by advanced
microscopy.
It consists of an extensive three-dimensional
network of inter-connected filaments and
tubules that extends throughout the cytosol,
from the nucleus to the inner surface of the cell
membrane.
These filaments and tubules determine cell
shape and facilitate a variety of cell
movements.

What are the three types of fibers found in the cytoskeleton

of eukaryotic cells?

The cytoskeleton is a network of fibers that maintains the

shape of cells.
The three types of fibers are actin filaments, microtubules, and
intermediate filaments.
Actin filaments are long fibers composed of two protein chains.
They are responsible for cellular movements, such as
contraction, crawling, pinching during division, and formation
of cellular extensions.
Microtubules are hollow tubes composed of a ring of thirteen
protein filaments. They are responsible for moving materials
within the cell.
Intermediate filaments are tough, fibrous protein molecules
structured in an overlapping arrangement. They are
intermediate in size when compared to actin filaments and
microtubules, and provide structural stability to cells.

Do cells have specific shapes?

While it doesnt seem that animal cells have a
specific shape, they all have a cytoskeleton.
The cytoskeleton enables cells to assume and
maintain complex shapes, such as the star-like
shape of a neuron or the biconcave shape of a
red blood cell.
Epithelial and connective tissues also have very
particular
shapes-the
columnar
epithelium
resembles a wall of bricks.
Plant cells usually have a specific shape due to
their rigid cell wall, which decreases the elasticity
of the cell.

REFERENCES
Sadava, D.; Hillis, D.M.; Heller, H.C.;
Berenbaum,
M.R. 2014. Life The Science
of Biology 10th Edition. Sinauer Associates,
Inc.
(eBook)
Mason, K.A.; Losos, J.B.; Singer, S.R. 2017.
Biology
11th
Edition.
McGraw-Hill
Education. (eBook)