Debate the following statement with

technical knowledge

THE ONLY THING THAT STANDS

BETWEEN YOU AND THE UTILITY
YOU WANT TO MAP IS THE SOIL

background
True to popular saying we can see item (star) located
million light years away however we cant see things
even half metre under the ground.. And the only thing
between you and the item is the soil.
So what is the problem?

Just remove the soil there you can see the utilities

we can always do this

or this

using

But all that

are destructive detection
techniques trenching
method
In utility survey, absolute
certainty is guaranteed only
by trenching.

Confidence rating A

but it is not practical and also

very costly

and maybe fatal

if we dont do that
Many people say we cant see the utilities
But it is not true

with technology we can see

As a matter of facts we can see the formulation of star in the

far galaxy using technology not our own naked eyes

Our technology are so advanced that we can even sent probe

to the moon and the red planet.

non-destructive detection techniques

non-destructive detection techniques that have been developed

ground penetrating radar,

electromagnetic locators,
magnetometers,
acoustic location systems and
infrared thermography.

However, the advancement of technology in this field is not as fast as in

other field (such as smartphone) mainly because of the niche market
Almost all the techniques above employ electromagnetic.

Therefore the soils magnetic, electric and dielectric properties are of particular important to us.

if the influence is significant, these tools may not provide reliable information and the safety of
operations cannot be assured.

Therefore knowing how soils affect detection and its influences is upmost
important

Choice of techniques
which choice of techniques (or
combination) need to be employed
depends
the type of utilities which equipment
the site conditions soil
the site location.. such as urban and
suburban

In the suburbs, the density of utilities is lower

now

THE SOIL

soil
the material on the thin skin of the
Earth's crust and that has been under
the influence of certain physical and
biological processes
Soils main constituents:

Solid

Mineral and organic matter

porous

air and water

Functions of soil

medium for plant growth

a means of water storage, supply and
purification
a modifier of the atmosphere of earth;
and
a habitat for organisms that take part in
decomposition of organic matter

and the creation of a habitat for new organisms

Main physical properties of soil

There any many physical properties of soil such as

Texture, Structure, Density, Porosity,

Consistency, Temperature, Colour, Resistivity

However the properties Resistivity and Texture are of our interest

Soil Resistivity

is a measure of a soil's ability to retard theconductionof anelectric current.

The electricalresistivityof soil can affect the rate ofgalvanic corrosionof metallic
structures in contact with the soil.

Higher moisture content or increasedelectrolyteconcentration can lower resistivity

and increase conductivity, thereby increasing the rate of corrosion.

Soil Texture (the size of particles in the soil), the single most important physical
properties for our purpose of utility mapping

How easily water flows through it

Its water holding capacity

Soil texture

electrical properties of soil

The electrical properties of soil are magnetic susceptibility, electrical conductivity and dielectric
permittivity.
magnetic susceptibility

The magnetic susceptibility of a soil or road material is regarded as equal to the value in vacuum and, thus, does
not have variable effects on propagation of GPR pulses

electrical conductivity

Electrical conductivity in soil implies electron movement with free or limited dislocations, which may be caused
by various phenomena.

When the surfaces of these minerals come into contact with liquid water, electrolytes are formed and ionic drift
associated with the electrical field causes electrical conduction. Ionic movement is proportional to the magnitude
of the electric field and is affected by temperature, ionic concentration, and molecular composition.

dielectric permittivity.

The dielectric value is a measure of the relative ability of a material to store a charge for a given applied field
strength

while dielectric loss is a measure of the proportion of the charge transferred in conduction and stored in
polarization

dielectric value
The most important component in soil is water.
The dielectric permittivity of water in soil depends on the
degree of bonding of the water molecules around the soil
particles
The dielectric value of a composite material such as a
mineralairwater mixture is composed of:
1.

the dielectric constants of the individual components;

2.

the volume fractions of the components;

3.

the geometric properties of the components; and

4.

the electrochemical

The separation of the charge in simple materials

can be explained by
a shift of the centre of charge in electron motion
relative to the nuclei electron polarization
a shift of positively charged nuclei with respect to
negatively charged ones molecular polarization
rotation of dipolar molecules orientational
polarization
ions drifting against barriers interfacial polarization

dielectric permittivity
is
a complex number and is a function of frequency.
Relative dielectric permittivity. The dielectric value can be expressed in
the form
K*() = KK ()- jK()
real
imaginary
dielectric value or dielectric constant is the ratio of the complex
dielectric permittivity ,
is the dielectric permittivity of free space, 8.85 =10 -12 F/m
refers to the angular frequency.
The relationship between electrical conductivity and K is
The loss tangent, indicated by s given by

dielectric permittivity
The real part of the dielectric permittivity can
vary in natural soil constituents between 1 air and
81 free polar water at 208C.
the variation that need to be look at with typical
type of soil are:

spatial variation: clay, water, minerals

Time: temperature

surface type: paved, grass, bare

Knowledge of the soil at the site

Desk study & planning

field survey planning

Desk Study and Planning
Site Investigation
Field Survey

Preparation of survey
Rock and soil type

geological maps, geological reports and borehole data.

Records from local companies

Water content + Ground water table

Estimation of moisture content from the publish data

Seasonal variation of water content

Obtain latest rainfall data from weather stations

Surface and Terrain

Use prior knowledge, terrain database, and satellite maps to determine surface type and terrain.

Vegetation influence

Grass or trees near and at o measurement site may significantly disturb EM waves

especially shortly after a period of rain.

Electrical power transmission lines

especially those carrying higher voltages, above the surface or in the ground can be false targets.

Objective of desk study

to determine based on the depth,

size and geometry of the targets:
1.Amount of time to record the signal
2.Antenna frequency
3.Line spacing

Decision from Desk study

Survey speed and time

The survey speed is dependent upon the equipment and the survey grid.

Choice of equipment

The choice of equipment is mainly influenced by the expected ground

conditions and survey requirement.

Frequency and speed of survey also influence this choice.

Grid and positioning

The layout of a grid will depend on the survey requirement as well as

choice of equipment.

In any case, it is necessary to ensure that adequate positioning

information can be recorded during survey.

the choice of equipment

Instrument choice
GPR, How it Works?

The basic theory is that ultrahigh frequency radio waves (generally

10 MHz to 1,000 MHz) are transmitted into the ground through an
antenna.

The transmitted waves are then reflected from various buried

objects or different materials. An antenna then receives the
reflected waves and stores them in the digital control unit.

GPR waves can reach depths up to 100 feet (30 meters) in low
conductivity materials such as dry sand or granite. Clays, shale,
and other high conductivity materials, may attenuate or absorb
GPR signals, greatly decreasing the depth of penetration to 3 feet
(1 meter) or less.

Applicationsof GPR
I. Construction details (e.g., location of buried foundations and
basements, slab thickness, reinforcement placement, void detection,
locating beams, bridge deck surveys, floor surveys)
II. Depth to bedrock
III. Depth to water table
IV. Locating fractures, sinkholes or cave systems
V. Locating underground storage tanks and buried drums
VI. Archaeology (e.g., location of graves and artifacts)
VII.Mapping and monitoring groundwater pollution
VIII.Locating below ground services

GPR Capability
Respond to both metallic and non-metallic features.
Give it a unique capability for pipe and cable locating.
Recommended over paved road in urban areas.
Able to detect plastic, asbestos andconcrete pipes and structures as
well as metallic ones.
Interpreted to derive information such as depth, orientation, size and
shape of buried objects, density and water content of soils, and
much more
Relatively high speed of survey.
Integrates well with positioning system.

GPR obstacles
GPRs major limitation is its site specific performance.
GPR is unlikely to be suitable for the urban
environment.
The depth of penetration is limited by the presence of
mineral, clays and water.
requires knowledge of the complex permittivity, water
content and conductivity of soil
GPR method is sensitive to noise caused by various
geologic and cultural factors

Geologic and cultural noise

Geologic noise
Geologic noise can be caused by boulders, animal burrows,
tree roots, and other inhomogeneities can cause unwanted
reflections or scattering.

Cultural noise
Cultural noise can include reflections from nearby vehicles,
buildings, fences, power lines, and trees. Shielded antennas
can be used to limit these types of reflections.
Electromagnetic transmissions from cellular telephones, twoway radios, television, and radio and microwave transmitters
may cause noise on GPR records.

GPR considered as an environmental

tool
Radar signal is attenuated /absorbed differently in
various soil
conditions
Antenn
Dense
Dry
Target
a

Wet Clay

Sand

100
MHz

6m

18 m

Tunnel and Pipe

depth

250
MHz

4m

12 m

Pipe

500
MHz *

1.8 m

4.4 m

Pipe and Hose

1000
MHz **

90 cm

1.8 m

Hose, Wire mesh

2000
MHz

15 cm

60
cm

Monofilament
fishing line

* widely used for locating utilities

** locating utilities in walls and floors

Sample of GPR Survey

ELECTROMAGNETIC LOCATOR (EML)

How is works?
Consisting of a transmitter and a receiver, the
technology has two primary function modes, active
and passive. Within these two modes are various
methods of deployment, each of which will potentially
provide a piece of the puzzle that is a utility survey

EML Advantages
Essentially forms a utility surveyors toolkit and is very
effective when in capable hands
Will generally provide a reliable picture of the utility
networks within a search area, with the exception
being inaccessible plastic pipes.
Depth measurements are possible with all methods
except radio mode. This depth is to the centre line of
the utility being measured.

EML Obstacles
Using in active mode is restricted when working on
railway signalling cables.
Reliability can be greatly affected in densely
populated utility network situations by interference
from other sources such as high voltage substations,
reinforced concrete and difficult ground conditions

Direct Connection
Method
The direct connection methodology involves the
transmitter being directly attached to a stop valve tap or
actually on to a metallic pipe itself
The direct connection methodology is fundamental in any
site based utility search, as it lets the operator identify
and trace different services in sequence.

Tracer Cable Method

Allows the accurate tracing of accessible non-metallic
utilities down to an approximate depth of around 2m. It
must be stressed that detection depths are affected by the
interference caused by other nearby services and adverse
ground conditions.

Sondes Method
Sondes are available in many different sizes; however,
useful in providing positional information on deeper
drainage pipes; indeed some Sondes are rated to 10m
plus with regards to depth range. Allowance must be
made when tracing large diameter pipes for the ability of
the Sonde to move sideways across the pipe.

Sample of EML Survey

equipment calibration

Instrument Calibration
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

New equipment
After every repair
When the specified period has lapsed
When a specified usage ( operating hours ) has elapsed
Before or after critical measurement
After an event

After shock vibration

Expose to adverse condition which potentially have put it out of calibration
Changes in weather

7. Whenever observation appears questionable

8. Instrument indication do not match the output of
surrogate instrument.
9. Manufacture recommendation

Calibration Process
Adjusting the output or indication on a measurement equipment
to agree with the value of the applied standard within the
specify accuracy
Velocity Calibration

Is done in order to know the transmission velocity of

the radio waves. The process is by detecting:
1.
2.
3.

Buried object at known object

Buried layer at known object
Automatic detection using multiple antennas

Accuracy
Accuracy will depend on 3 factors ie:

hardware factor

the resolution of the instrument used

the equipment calibration

software factor

accuracy of CAD or GIS software

human factor

the operator skill and experiences

the accuracy of the survey grid (while establish or while recording)

hereditary factor

the base-map

standard of the topo map which subjected to the type of instrument used (tape, total station or gps), its
class of survey (first or second)

Confidence ratings
The Confidence ratings is the measure of the confidence the surveyor /
CAD draughts person in the interpretation of a specific utility.

Factors Affecting Soil Electric Conductor

The conduction of electricity, EC in soils takes place through the moisture-filled
pores that occur between individual soil particles. Therefore, the EC of soil is
influenced by interactions among the following soil properties:
Pore Continuity
soils with water-filled pore spaces that are connected directly with neighboring soil pores
tend to conduct electricity more readily. soils with high clay content have numerous, small
water-filled pores that are quite continuous and usually conduct electricity better than
sandier soils. curiously, compaction will normally increase soil EC.

Water Content
dry soils are much lower in conductivity than moist soils.

Salinity Level
increasing concentration of electrolytes (salts) in soil water will dramatically increase soil
EC. the salinity level in the soils of most humid regions such as the corn belt is normally
very low. however there are areas that are effected by Ca, Mg, chloride (cl), sulfate (so4), or
other salts that will have elevated EC levels.

Factors Affecting Soil EC (cont)

Cation Exchange Capacity
Mineral soils containing high levels of o.m. (humus) and/or 2:1 clay mineral such as
montmorillonite, illite or vermicu-lite have a much higher ability to retain positively charged
ions such as Ca, Mg, potassium(K), sodium (Na), ammonium (Nh4), or hydrogen (H). than
soils lacking these constituents . the presence of these ions in the moisture-filled soil pores
will enhance soil EC in the same way that salinity does.

Depth
The signal strength of EC measurements decreases with soil depth. therefore, subsurface
features will not be expressed as will not be expressed as intensely by ec mapping as the
same feature if it were located nearer to the soil surface.

Temperature
As temperature decreases toward the freezing point of water, soil EC decreases slightly.
Below freezing, soil pores become increasingly insulated from each other and overall soil EC
declines rapidly. mapping of soil EC requires a field vehicle that is equipped with both a GPS
receiver and an EC measuring device. ideally, the vehicle should be equipped with a
differentially corrected GPR receiver.

LOCATION FACTOR

urban

suburban

Site area

Urban, buit-up, paved

Rural,
semiurban,
paved

Utilities

EML, GPR or
RESISTIVITY

Alkali-vapour
magnetomete
r

Deep (>1.0m)

Shallow (<1.0m)

magnetic

Geology
Non-magnetic

GPR

magnetomete
r

survey in urban and suburban areas

a. choice of instrument.
a.

for urban areas GPR

b.

for suburban area it depends on the depth of the utilities

I.

if depth > 1m GPR plus Akali-vapour magnetometer

II.

if depth < 1m equipment depends type of soil/rocks

type of soil magnetic or non magnetic

I.

for urban areas GPR

II.

for suburban area it depends on type of soil and utilities depth <1m
I.

magnetic GPR plus magnetometer

II.

non-magnetic EML, GPR or Resistivity

b. penetration depth of the soil

a.

for urban areas deep

b.

for suburban area mostly shallow

c. disturbances from external noise etc

a.

for urban areas of motorist & traffic, tvs, computer, mobile

phone

b.

for suburban area not much external noise

d. existing utilities, new and old

a.

for urban areas combination of old & new, in use & out-ofcommission, deep & shallow, big & small

b.

for suburban area mostly new, deep

e. working environment
a.

for urban areas troublesome with a lot of disturbances

b.

for suburban area comfortable, less disturbances

Parameters
Traffic management

Urban

Suburban

Required consultation with local

authority

Safety measurement YES

YES

Type of soil

man-made surface, pavement,

foundation, etc.

top soil and sub

soil.

Built-up, building,
roads

High density

Low density

Water content

minimum

External noise and

disturbances

High noise level from traffic, TVs,

less disturbance
mobile phones and other electronic from noise
equipment

Survey Quality

high

lower level

Vegetation

less

More (bushes) **

Confidence level

Medium to medium high

Higher

Confidence
There is a perception held by many that all buried pipes, cables
and ducts can be detected and mapped irrespective of their size,
duty, depth, location, material type, geology and proximity to
other utilities.
Accuracy of the actual depth of target from real data is dependent
on interpretation, soil permittivity, and soil homogeneity.
A well designed and executed survey should be able to detect up
to around 90% of utilities but it may not be possible to achieve a
100% detection rate.
So the rate of confidence in detection is higher in the suburd
compared to urban areas.

finally

SUMMARY
&
CONCLUSION

summary
Many techniques to determine utilities have been developed but the choice selected depend
on type of utilities, site conditions, location, and combination of technique.
Main concern in detecting the buried structures/utilities is soil where it has its own function,
properties and texture.
In order to do that, we have to carry out Field Survey Planning
GPR more popular and commonly deployed in urban area.

GPR rely upon the transmission and reception of EM wave to detect the reflection from targets.

The performance of GPR depend on the properties of the soil.

It is not as conclusive as the EML system; however, when used in conjunction with the EML technology, a
very accurate picture of the subsurface environment can be realised.

The main benefit of these systems is that they can work in areas with high ambient background noise, such
as electric sub-stations.

They can detect virtually anything that contrasts to the surrounding underground environment, such as
plastic pipes.

They are also effective in detecting larger utilities where made ground has increased the depth of burial,
beyond the normal range of EML, through the use of lower frequency antennas

Advantages and disadvantages of GPR

Conclusion
Utility Survey refers to the geo-positioning, sensing and identification
of buried pipes and cables beneath the ground.
A successful utility survey may require the combination of several
techniques, the results of which are distilled into an interpreted plot.
The techniques and methodologies used will primarily depend upon
the required outcome for the survey, the site conditions and the type
of pipes or cables being targeted.
Complex permittivity as prominent parameter in influencing the
propagation of EM wave through a material at GPR frequencies where

the real part = velocity of EM propagation and

the imaginary part = attenuation of the EM signal.

Conclusion (cont)
Soil geophysical properties is crucial in conducting geophysical surveys and
interpretation of data.

The components of soil composition are sand, silt, clay, organic matters and moisture
content.

Conductivity in soil correlated to the attenuation of the GPR electromagnetic signal.

Permittivity of soil correlated to the volumetric water content.

A wetter ground generally increases soil permittivity.

The change in soil permittivity can have a direct impact on the perceived depth of
target, where target appears to be deeper under wet conditions.

Semi-empirical models enable to predict geographical variability of soil (needs

information of clay content and the water content).

As a rule of thumb < 10% clay is favourable and > 30% clay is challenging.

In general, < 15% water is good and > 40% water impedes GPR performance.

Q&A

Thank you