Atoms

tiny wonders worth studying

Energy states of electrons in atoms are
represented by this formula. Understand all the
symbols and implications of this formula.

2 Z eff m e
2

En = - (

Atoms

)(

1
n

)
2
1

The Hydrogen Spectrum

1
1
Wave number = R (2 )
nf
ni2

Balmers finding
Balmer series, ni = 2;
snd nf = 3, 4, 5, ...
Rydbergs formula
Rydberg constant

Atoms

Energy States of e- in H

Atoms

The Discovery of X-rays

Rontgens letter publish in Nature (Jan 23, 1896) with a
photo showing a hand skeleton of his wife proclaimed
the discovery of X-rays.
(imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/science/know_l1/history1_xray.html)

Image of rabbit ear

spring8.or.jp/ENGLISH/general_info/overview/imaging.html

X-ray image of Mrs. Rontgens hand

Tell the Atoms
story of X-ray discovery.
4

Generation of X-rays
X-ray Generation by Cathode Rays
Filament and thermal electron emitter
Electron beam
1000 V

X-ray Spectra of Low and High Voltages

Number of
photons

Low
voltage

X-rays
High
voltage

What is the principle of

X-ray generation?

Photon energy

Atoms

Characteristic X-rays and energy

levels of electrons in elements
Target Material Dependent Lines of
Xrays.
Intensity

L (n=2)
electron

Energy h v
Characteristic X-ray
K (n=1)

What are characteristic X-rays

and why they are generated?
Atoms

Moseleys
Law

Plot of Moseleys Law

/ 109
3.0
2.0

Atomic No.

1.0
25

30

35

40

45

50

55
L (n=2)

3 2 Z eff m e 4
2

2h

What is Moseleys law and

how it impacts science?

=h=
E

electron

Characteristic X-ray
K (n=1)

Atoms

X-ray Diffraction Explained

Diffraction of X-ray Waves by Crystal Planes

X-ray
waves

Typical diffraction diagram of a quasicrystal,

exhibiting 5-fold or 10-fold rotational symmetry

Atoms

Crystal Structures Revealed by X-ray Diffractions

X-ray diffraction revealed
structures of many
substances and impacted
science and engineering
development. Two are
shown.

The Crystal Structure of Table Salt, NaCl

Only one layer is shown. The crystals consists
of many layers stacked on top of each other.

Tetrahedral Bonding in Diamond, Silicon,

Zinc sulfide, Gallium Arsenide etc.

Atoms

Discovery of Radioactivity
Becquerels Experiments Leading to the Discovery
of Radioactivity

Uranium
salt
Ag Br Photographic plate
wrapped in black paper.

Methodology in
Becquerels
discovery of
radioactivity is
intriguing and
interesting.
How do you
explain the
discovered
phenomenon?
What & why?

Image of uranium salt on plate

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Properties of Radioactive Rays

What is radioactivity?

Bending of and rays by an Electric Field.

Atoms

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Rutherford
-particle
Scattering
Experiment

What is the alpha scattering

experiment?
What did he observed, and
how he explained it?

Interpretation of Rutherford's alpha

scattering experiment

Most alpha particles are unaffected,

few deviated by large angles.
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The Rutherford Atoms

Interpretation of Rutherford's alpha
scattering experiment

Rutherfords Conclusion
Radius of atoms: 1e-10 m
H 37
Li 150
Fr 170

He 50
F 71

Radius of nuclei: 1e-15 m

rnuc= 1.2 A1/3 fm(1E-15)

Most alpha particles are unaffected,

few deviated by large angles.

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13

The Bohr Atom

a tiny solar system

Need a New Perception of the Atom

Bohr applied the Idea of Max

Planck, and used
results from Rutherford. He
made an assumprion:

m v r = h/2
His results are given next

What is the Bohr atom?

How did he arrive such a model? If U care

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Energy States of Electrons in the Bohr Atom

Energy States of an Electron in the H Atom

Results of Bohr atom

-0.85 eV
-1.5 eV

m v r = h/2

-3.4 eV

Z e2
m v2

2
4 o r
r

Free electron

Z2
e2
En =
2n 2 4 o ao

-Hau/ 2n2

-13.6 eV

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A Quantum Mechanical View of Energy States

In a large system, the
energy states form a
band. As the system
gets smaller, energy
states progressively
became discrete.

Continuous versus Quantized States

Quantum mechanics
is required to deal
with microscopic
systems and discrete
energy states.

A discrete
material world

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The Development of
Quantum Mechanics

Traveling Waves

Max Plancks photon:

E=h
Rutherford atom
The Bohr atom (solar system)
Heisenbergs
uncertainty principle
Louis de Broglie (mater wave):
=h/mv
Schrodinger:
Treat particles as waves
What are the philosophies
behind quantum?

Standing Waves

Atoms

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Quantum Mechanical View of Energy States of Electrons in the Atoms

Diagram energy states in atoms
and explain the periodic table.

Energy States of an Electron in the H Atom

-0.85 eV
-1.5 eV

Atomic Orbitals
4f
4d

-3.4 eV

4p
4s
3p
3s

3d

Free electron

-Hau/ 2n2

2s 2p

-13.6 eV

1s

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Quantum Mechanics Led to and the Periodic Table of Elements

Electronic configurations
of some light elements
Ne
F
O
N
C
B
Be
Li
He
H

1s2 2s22p6
1s2 2s22p5
1s2 2s22p4
1s2 2s22p3
1s2 2s22p2
1s2 2s22p1
1s2 2s2
1s2 2s1
1s2
1s1

Filling electrons in energy states gives

the electronic configurations of all
elements.
Atomic Orbitals
4f
4d
4p
4s
3d
3p
3s
2s 2p
1s

Atoms

19

Yin Yang and Primal Substance

1923 de Broglie particles as waves

1704 I. Newton Solid body

1927 Heisenberg uncertainty principle

1803 J. Dalton atomic theory

1927 Cockcroft /Walton split the atom

1832 M. Faraday electrolysis

1879 W. Crookes discovered electrons
1886 W. Rontgen X-rays
H. Becquerel radioactivity
Goldstein kanal rays
1897 J.J. Thomson e/m ratio
- Canal rays (H atom)
1898 E. Rutherford studied radioactivity
1900 Soddy transmutation of elements
1911 E. Rutherford dense +ve nuclei
1914 H.G.J. Moseley Moseley law
1922 N. Bohr Bohr atom model

The time line of our

understanding of the
atomic nuclei
Some facts about atoms:
Radii of atoms ~ 1e-10 m ()
most space occupied by electrons
Radii of atomic nuclei ~ 1e-15 m (fm)
most mass concentrated in nuclei
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20

Properties of Protons
1886 Goldstein discovered canal rays
1898 Wien and Thomson identified
them as nuclei of H and determined
some properties of protons

Rest
mass

1.6726231x1027 kg
1.00727647 amu
938.2723 MeV

The atomic number used in Moseleys

law turns out to be the number of
protons in the nuclei

Spin

Magnetic
moment

2.7928474 N

Electric
charge

+1 atomic charge

Protons were thought to be

fundamental particles

What is a proton?

Atoms

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Discovery of Neutrons
It has been shown by Bothe and others that beryllium when bombarded
by -particles of polonium emits a radiation of great penetrating power, .

Be + = C + n + Energy
B + n = Li +
It is to be expected that many of the effects of a neutron in passing
through matter should resemble those of a quantum of high-energy, and
it is not easy to reach the final decision between the two hypotheses.
Up to the present, all the evidence is in favour of the neutron, while the
quantum hypothesis can only be upheld if the conservation of energy and
momentum be relinquished at some point.
How was neutron discovered,
and what is it?

James Chadwick, Feb. 23, 1932

Atoms

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Neutron Scattering Techniques

THE ROYAL SWEDISH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
12 October 1994
The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences has decided to award the 1994 Nobel Prize in
Physics for pioneering contributions to the development of neutron
scattering techniques for studies of condensed matter with one half to
Professor Bertram N. Brockhouse, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada,
for the development of neutron spectroscopy
and one half to Professor Clifford G. Shull, MIT, Cambridge, Massachusetts

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23

Applications of neutrons from a research reactor

for studying structures and dynamics

Atoms

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Isotope
Discovery of neutron in atomic nuclei led to the concept of
isotopes.
Atomic weight

Why atomic weights are not all

integers?

Na
Mg
Cl
Ar
K
Ca
Cu

Can atoms of an element have

different number of neutrons?
What are isotopes?

23
24.3
35.5
40.
39
40
63.5

What are isotopes?

What are stable isotopes of C, Cl, Ca?

Atoms

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Deuterium and Isotopes of Hydrogen

Does hydrogen have isotopes?
How to separate isotopes?
How are their properties different?
H2

HD

D2

Triple point /K

13.96

16.60 18.73

Vapor pressure
at TP

128.6

92.8

54.0

Heat of vaporization at TP

117

159

197

Boiling point (K) 20.39

22.13 23.67

Heat of vaporization at BP

1074

903

Harold C. Urey (1893-1981)

1934 Nobel Laureate in
Chemistry for his discovery of
heavy hydrogen.

1225

Atoms

26

Urey Experiment About Life

The early Earth atmosphere of NH3, CH4, H2O, under discharge

produced organic matter including aminoacids that are essential
compounds for life form.
Atoms

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Atomic Mass, Abundance and Atomic Weight

Isotope atomicmass

H
2
H
3
H
1

Abundance

1.00782503 0.99985
2.014102
0.000148
3.016049
Trace

----

atomicmass*abundance

1.007674
0.000298
+________

Atomic weight for H

= 1.007674 + 0.00298

= 1.007972

Practice the evaluation of atomic weight of an element

using the same method as this example shows.
Atoms

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Notations for Nuclides

Representations
of a nuclide

How isotope differ from nuclide?

How are nuclides represented?

T1 3He2 12C6
235 92 238 92 234 92
U
U
U
239
Pu94
256
Fm100
3

EZ

M
E
z

O8

16

M
z

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The Quarks
Based on the properties and relationships of particles
known in 1962, Gell-Mann in the US and Y. Nemen of
Israel predicted the existence and properties of some
unknown particles in considerable detail. Gell-Mann and
Zweig from Caltech suggested that some heavy particles
such as protons and neutrons (called baryons) were
made up from three entities called quarks, so named
by Murray Gell-Mann after a quote "three quarks for
muster Mark, sure he hasn't got much of a bark, etc..."
from the novel Finnegan's Mark. J. Joyce, author of the
novel, used quarks to rhyme with Mark, bark, lark etc....

Atoms

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The Standard Model

A Simplified Universe
Generation
Quarks
Leptons

First

Second

Third

u, d c, s t, b
e, e

Scientific progress often involves establishing

conventional wisdom. Other times, it is more a
matter of defying it.
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X-ray and Neutrons in the News

X-Ray Optical Systems, Inc., used the ATP funding to develop processes to fabricate and
predict the performance of new capillary optics technology, which can bend and focus both
X-rays and neutrons. Follow-on efforts to develop medical, industrial, and scientific
applications are beginning to pay off for both the company and the nation. For example:
An instrument that generates beams with 100 times the intensity of other compact X-ray
sources is an early spin-off of the project.
The new optics can identify and analyze the structure of proteins four to 10 times faster than
conventional methods, a benefit in drug design.
Among industrial applications, the new optics offer a four- to 16-fold increase in X-ray
intensity that is accelerating the development and monitoring of magnetic data-storage
materials.
And this is only the beginning.We have more active collaborations than we have employees,
and we have identified more application areas than we have employees ... its an exciting
time, says David Gibson, the company president.

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