Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Scholars in Realism,
liberalism,
constructivism
Types of Realism
Naive Realism
This theory is also known as direct realism or common sense realism.
Naive realism holds that the view of the world that we derive from our senses is to be taken at face value: there are objects out
there in the world, and those objects have the properties that they appear to us to have. If I have an experience as of a large
apple tree, then thats because theres a large apple tree in front of me. If the apples on the tree appear to me to be red, then
thats because there are objects in front of me, apples, that have the property redness; simple.
Plausible though naive realism may be, it has serious problems, among which is the problem of the variability of perception. The
same object may appear differently to different people, or to the same person at different times. The apples may appear to be
red in the daytime, but at dusk they are a shade of grey. If naive realism is to be taken seriously, and colours are out there in the
world, then apples regularly change colour depending on how much light is around them. It is much more plausible, though, to
think that the apples are the same as they ever were, that all that has changed is our experience of them.
Scholars in realism
Thomas
Hobbes
Hugo Grotius
Emmerich de Vattel
Niccolo Machiavelli
Hans Morgenthau
Kenneth Waltz
In Leviathan, written during the English Civil Wars (1642-1651), Hobbes argues for the necessity and natural evolution
of the social contract, a social construct in which individuals mutually unite into political societies, agreeing to abide by
common rules and accept resultant duties to protect themselves and one another from whatever might come
otherwise. He also advocates rule by an absolute sovereign, saying that chaos--and other situations identified with a
"state of nature" (a pre-government state in which individuals' actions are bound only by those individuals' desires
and restraints)--could be averted only by a strong central government, one with the power of the biblical Leviathan (a
sea creature), which would protect people from their own selfishness. He also warned of "the war of all against all"
(Bellum omnium contra omnes), a motto that went on to greater fame and represented Hobbes' view of humanity
without government.
Hugely influential, Hobbes' ideas form the building blocks of nearly all Western
political thought, including the right of the individual, the importance of
republican government, and the idea that acts are allowed if they are not
expressly forbidden. The historical importance of his political philosophy cannot
be overstated, as it went on to influence the likes of John Locke, Jean-Jacques
Rousseau and Immanuel Kant, to name a few.
Emmerich de Vattel : 1758; The Law of Nations), applied a theory of natural law to international
relations. His treatise was especially influential in the United States because his principles of liberty
and equality coincided with the ideals expressed in the Declaration of Independence. In particular,
his defense of neutrality and his rules for commerce between neutral and belligerent states were
considered authoritative in the U.S.
Vattel, however, rejected Wolffs conception of a regulatory world state, substituting national rights
and duties proceeding from his own view of the law of nature.
Niccolo Machiavelli : In 1503, one year after his missions to Cesare Borgia, Machiavelli wrote a
short work, Del modo di trattare i sudditi della Val di Chiana ribellati (
On the Way to Deal with the Rebel Subjects of the Valdichiana). Anticipating his later Discourses on
Livy, a commentary on the ancient Roman historian, in this work he contrasts the errors of Florence
with the wisdom of the Romans and declares that in dealing with rebellious peoples one must
either benefit them or eliminate them. Machiavelli also was a witness to the bloody vengeance
taken by Cesare on his mutinous captains at the town of Sinigaglia (December 31, 1502), of which
he wrote a famous account. In much of his early writings, Machiavelli argues that one should not
offend a prince and later put faith in him.
Hans
Morgenthau:
human nature.
2. Statesmen conduct themselves in terns of interest defined as
power.
3. Interest determines political conduct within the political and
cultural context which foreign policy is formulated.
4. Prudence is the supreme virtue in international politics.
5. Nations are entities that pursue their interests as defined by power
and should not be judged by universal moral principles.
6. Political realism rejects the legalistic-moralistic approach to
international politics.
Kenneth
waltz: The only thing that could be used to deal with the animus dominandi was
power, military, political or economic, to be wielded, when necessary, unflinchingly and without
scruple.
Theory
Waltzs
structural realism attracted criticism from the start, and continues to do so today, almost
twenty-five years after Theory of International Politics was published. But it is impossible not to
acknowledge that it decisively shifted the terms of debate in international theory, returning
realism to the mainstream, where it has remained ever since. In the 1980s, 1990s and 2000s, the
field was defined by a series of arguments between the realists and their critics, as first the neoliberal institutionalists and then various bands of constructivists, feminists, postmodernists and
critical theorists lined up to attack Waltz and his students.
Without
Waltz and without structural realism, we would have seen no offensive and neo-classical
realism, no agent-structure debate, and no anarchy is what states make of it. Whatever one
thinks about his revival of realism, and about the many responses to it, it is impossible to imagine
what IR would have looked like without Theory of International Politics, as well as Waltzs many
other works. For that reason alone, he will be remembered as one of the great thinkers of the field.
Scholars in Liberalism
John
Locke (16321704)
Woodrow Wilson (1856-1924)
Thomas Jefferson
John Locke
John
Woodrow wilson
The world would look to America and Wilson's leadership to resolve the
First World War. Wilson's Fourteen Points Address of 1918 called for a
peace of reconciliation, based on democracy, self-determination,
without annexations and indemnities, and a postwar League of
Nations. The Paris Peace Conference in 1919 concluded with the
signing of the Versailles Treaty with Germany, but a new Republican
Congress at home was not in agreement with the peace negotiated
under Wilson, particularly with the League of Nations and collective
security aspects. Ultimately, a separate peace was negotiated between
the United States and Germany. Wilson was awarded the 1919 Nobel
Peace Prize, and heralded in Europe as a savior of peace.
Britain
Jefferson was the spokesman of liberty and a racist
slave owner, the champion of the common people and a
man with luxurious and aristocratic tastes, a believer in
limited government and a president who expanded
governmental authority beyond the wildest visions of
his predecessors, a quiet man who abhorred politics and
the most dominant political figure of his generation. The
tensions between Jefferson's principles and practices
make him all the more apt a symbol for the nation he
helped create, a nation whose shining ideals have
always been complicated by a complex history.
Continued..
Faktor
Perancis
Swedia
diapit oleh dua wilayah diansti Habsburg (Spanyol dan Kekaisaran Romawi Suci)dan berhasrat untuk mendesak Negara-negara Jerman yang lebih lemah.
dan Denmark tertarik untuk mengusai Negara-negara Jerman yang berbatasan dengan Laut Baltik.