FREQUENCY

AND
PHASE
MODULATION
(ANGLE
MODULATION)

 ANGLE MODULATION
When frequency or phase of the carrier is
varied by the modulating signal , then it is
called angle modulation.
Frequency Modulation When the frequency
of the carrier varies as per amplitude of
modulating signal, then it is called frequency
modulation (FM).
Phase Modulation - When the phase of the
carrier varies as per amplitude of modulating
signal, then it is called phase modulation (PM).
Amplitude of the modulated carrier remains
constant in both modulation systems.
BDG(xx)

 An important feature of angle

modulation:
It can provide a better discrimination
(robustness) against noise and
interference than AM.
Thisimprovementisachievedattheexp
enseofincreased
transmissionbandwidth.
In case of angle modulation, channel
bandwidth may be exchanged for
improved noise performance
Such trade-o is notpossible with AM
BDG(xx)

 BASIC DEFINITIONS -Relationship

between the angle and frequency of
a sinusoidal signal
Sinusoidal carrier c(t)=Ac cos[i(t)]
Angle of carrier i(t)[rad]
Instantaneous frequency of carrier
f(t)=(1/2)i(t)=(1/2)di(t)/dt
=(1/2) i(t)[Hz].
In the case of an un-modulated
carrier, the angle becomes
i(t)=2fct + c
BDG(xx)

Time domain representation

BDG(xx)

 Compare FM-PM
The basic dierence between FM & PM
lies in which property of the carrier is
directly varied by modulating signal.
In FM, the frequency of carrier is
varied directly.
In PM, phase of the carrier is varied
directly. Instantaneous phase deviation
is represented by (t).
Instantaneous phase= ct + (t) rad.
BDG(xx)

 Instantaneous frequency deviation =

d/dt {(t)} = (t) Hz.
The instantaneous frequency deviation
is the instantaneous change in carrier
frequency and is equal to the rate at
which instantaneous phase deviation
takes place.
Instantaneous frequency is defined as
frequency of the carrier at a given
instant of time and is given as
i(t) =d/dt [c.t +
(t)] = c + (t) rad/sec.
BDG(xx)

 Instantaneous phase deviation (t) is

proportional to modulating signal
voltage,
(t) = k em(t) rad. ( k
is deviation sensitivity of phase.).
Instantaneous frequency deviation
(t) is proportional to modulating signal
voltage,
(t) = k1 em(t) rad.
( k1 is deviation sensitivity of
frequency.)##2

BDG(xx)

Frequency modulation

5.9

 Observations from the FM & PM

waveforms
1. Both FM & PM waveforms are identical
except the phase shift.
2. For FM, the maximum frequency
deviation takes place when modulating
signal is at +ve and ve peaks.
3. For PM, the maximum frequency
deviation takes place near zero crossing
of the modulating signal.
4. It is dicult to know from modulated
waveform whether the modulation is FM
or PM. (##3)
BDG(xx)

11

 Bandwidth Requirement for FM The BW requirement can be obtained

depending on the modulation index (M.I).
The M.I. can be classified as high(more than
10), medium (1 to 10) and low (less than 1).
The low index systems are called narrowband
FM in which frequency spectrum resembles
AM. BW (fm) =2fm Hz.
For high index modulation, BW = 2*.(Freq.
dev.)
BW can also be found out by Bessel tableBWfm = 2.n.fm where n is the number of
sidebands obtained from table.
BDG(xx)

12

 Carsons Rule
Rule gives approximate minimum BW
of angle modulated signal as
BW fm = 2{ + fm(max)} Hz.
From the above equation, it is found
that the BW accommodates almost
98% of the total transmitted power

BDG(xx)

13

 Bandwidth for PM
BW for PM is expressed as
BWpm = 2(mp+1)fm.

BDG(xx)

14

 Block Diagram of NBFM Generator

Carrier is Ec cos c .t
M(t
)

Integrato
r

Product
Modulat
or

90 degree
Phase
Shifter

BDG(xx)

Adder

NBFM
signal

Carrier
Generato
r

16

 Phasor Diagram of NBFM

USB phasor at an angle of (m .t)
and LSB phasor at an angle of (m .t)
Resultant
Phasor

Phase
Shift

LSB
Phasor

USB
Phasor

Carrier
Phasor

BDG(xx)

17

 Carrier phasor is Ec cos c .t (always

fixed).
USB phasor in clockwise direction (m)
LSB phasor in counter clockwise
direction (-m)
Resultant of two sideband phasor is
always perpendicular to carrier phasor.
The net resultant phasor of NBFM due
to Carrier and sidebands is as shown in
the diagram.
BDG(xx)

18

 Wideband Frequency Modulation

If the modulation index is higher than
10, then it is called wideband FM.
Spectrum contains infinite numbers of
sidebands and carrier as against two
sidebands and carrier in NBFM.
BW is = 2{+fm(max)} as against 2fm
for NBFM.
Used for broadcast and entertainment
as against for mobile communication
for NBFM.
##5.
BDG(xx)

19

 Advantages of Angle Modulation over AM 1. As the amplitude of FM carrier is

constant, the noise interference is
minimum.
2. The amplitude of FM carrier is constant
and is independent of depth of modulation.
Hence transmitter power remains constant
in FM whereas it varies in AM.
3. As against the limitation of depth of
modulation in AM, in FM depth of
modulation can be increased to any value,
without causing any distortion.
BDG(xx)

20

 4. Because of guard bands provided in

FM, adjacent channel interference is
very less.
5. Since FM uses VHF and UHF bands
of frequencies, the noise interference
is minimum as compared to AM which
uses MF and HF ranges.
6. Radius of propagation is limited as
FM uses space waves with line of
sight. So it is possible to operate many
independent transmitters on the same
frequency with minimum interference.
BDG(xx)

21

 Disadvantages of FM compared to
AM 1. BW requirement of FM is very high
as compared to AM.
2. FM equipments are more complex
and hence costly.
Area covered by FM is limited, to line
of sight area but AM coverage area is
large.

BDG(xx)

22

 Comparison between FM and AM Paramete

AM
r
Origin
AM method of audio
transmission was first
successfully carried out
in the mid 1870s.
Modulating
dierences

In AM, a radio wave

known as the "carrier" or
"carrier wave" is
modulated in amplitude
by the signal that is to
be transmitted
It is used in both analog
and digital
Importance
communication and
telemetry
Frequency AM radio ranges from
BDG(xx)
Range
535 to 1705 KHz (OR)
Up

FM
FM radio was developed in
the United states mainly by
Edwin Armstrong in the
1930s.
In FM, a radio wave known as
the "carrier" or "carrier wave"
is modulated in frequency by
the signal that is to be
transmitted.
It is used in both analog and
digital communication and
telemetry
FM radio ranges in a higher
spectrum from 88 to 108

23

 Comparison between FM and AM Paramete

r

AM

Bandwidth
Twice the highest modulating
Requirement frequency. In AM radio
s
broadcasting, the modulating
signal has bandwidth of
15kHz, and hence the
bandwidth of an amplitudemodulated signal is 30kHz.
Complexity
Transmitter and receiver are
simple but synchronization is
needed in case of SSBSC AM
carrier.

Noise

AM is more susceptible to
noise because noise aects
BDG(xx)
amplitude, which is where

FM
Twice the sum of the
modulating signal frequency
and the frequency deviation. If
the frequency deviation is
75kHz and the modulating
signal frequency is 15kHz, the
bandwidth required is 180kHz.
Transmitter and receiver are
more complex as variation of
modulating signal has to be
converted and detected from
corresponding variation in
frequencies.(i.e. voltage to
frequency and frequency to
voltage conversion has to be
done).
FM is less susceptible to noise
because information in an FM
signal is transmitted through 24

 Comparison between FM and PM Sr

No.

FM

PM

The max frequency deviation

depends on amplitude of
modulating signal and its
frequency

The max phase deviation

depends on amplitude of
modulating signal

Frequency of the carrier is

modulated by modulating
signal.

Phase of the carrier is

modulated by modulating
signal.

Modulation index is
increased as modulation
frequency is reduced and
vice versa.

Modulation index remains

same if modulating signal
frequency is change.

BDG(xx)

25

BDG(xx)

26

 Modulators
Carrier frequency can be generated by LC
oscillator.
By varying the values of L or C of tank
circuit, carrier frequency can be changed.
Properties of BJT,FET and varactor diodes
can be varied by changing the voltage
across them.
When these components are used with
LC tank circuits, we are able to vary
frequency of oscillator by changing the
reactance of L or C.
BDG(xx)

27

 TWO types of FM Modulators

1. Indirect FM Modulation is obtained
by phase modulation of the carrier.
An instantaneous phase of
the carrier is directly proportional to
the amplitude of the modulating signal.
2. Direct FM- The frequency of carrier
is varied directly by modulating signal.
An instantaneous
frequency variation is directly
proportional to the amplitude of the
modulating signal.
BDG(xx)

28

 There are two methods to derive FM by

using FET and varactor.
1. Frequency modulation using Varactor
Diode
There exists small junction capacitance in
the reverse biased condition of all the
diodes.
The varactor diodes are designed to
optimise this characteristic.
As the reverse bias across varactor diode is
varied, its junction capacitance changes.
These changes are linear and wide (1 to
200pF)
BDG(xx)

29

 Frequency modulation using varactor

diode
All diodes show small junction
capacitance in the reverse biased
condition.
##6

BDG(xx)

30

 Advantages of FM using Varactor Diode

1. High frequency stability as crystal
oscillator is isolated from modulator.
Disadvantages
1. To avoid distortion, the amplitude of
modulating signal is to be kept small.
2. The varactor diode must have non
linear characteristics of capacitance vs.
voltage.
Use
This method is used for low index narrow
band FM generation.
BDG(xx)

31

 FET Reactance Modulator

There are a number of devices whose
reactance can be varied by the application
of voltage. These include FET and BJT,
varactor diode etc.
If such a device is placed across the tank
circuit of the L-C oscillator, then FM will be
produced when the reactance of the
device is varied by the modulating voltage.
At the carrier frequency, the oscillator
inductance is tuned by its own capacitance
in parallel with the average reactance to
the variable reactance device.
BDG(xx)

32

 Advantages of FET Reactance Modulator

1. Due to FET characteristics, linear
relationship between modulating voltage
and transconductance can be achieved.
2 This method produces enough frequency
deviation and hence no frequency
multiplication is required.
Disadvantages - Frequency stability is
poor as lumped components are used.
Use This method is used for low
modulation index application.
BDG(xx)

33

 Indirect FM
Phase modulation is used to achieve
frequency modulation in the indirect
method,
It is necessary to integrate the
modulating signal prior to applying it
to the phase modulator,
This transmitter is widely used in VHF
and UHF radio telephone equipment.
##7
BDG(xx)

34

 Advantage
1. The crystal oscillator is isolated from
modulator, so frequency stability is very
good.
Disadvantages
1. Because of nonlinear capacitance Vs.
voltage characteristics of varactor diode,
there is a distortion in the modulated
output waveform.
2. Amplitude of modulating signal should
be kept small to avoid distortion.
Use Used for narrow band low index FM.
BDG(xx)

35

 FM Transmitters
Two types of transmitters Indirect FM and
Direct FM Transmitters.
Indirect FM Transmitters Produces the FM
whose phase deviation is directly
proportional to modulating signal
amplitude. Frequency of oscillator is not
directly varied. Hence crystal oscillators can
be used.
Direct FM Transmitters Frequency
deviation is directly proportional to
modulating signal. Carrier frequency is
directly deviated.
BDG(xx)

36

 Need for Automatic Frequency

Correction
In FM transmitters, the frequency of
the oscillator is directly varied.
To obtain very stable frequency of
oscillator, automatic frequency
correction technique is employed.

BDG(xx)

37

 FM Transmitters
Block Diagram ##8
The modulating signal is given to
frequency modulator ( may be
reactance modulator or VCO ) and
oscillator.
Let fc = F Mhz. Multiplied by 18 to
generate the transmitted frequency
F*18 Mhz.
AFC loop is to maintain stable centre
frequency.
Multiplier output given to mixer is F*6.
BDG(xx)

38

 The crystal frequency oscillator reference frequency is {(6*fc) 2MHz.}

The mixer generates 2 MHz dierence
frequency which is given to
discriminator, which is tuned to 2 MHz.
If there is a dierence in the output
frequency of mixer, discriminator
generates d. c. correction voltage.
If multiplier frequency is exactly 6*fc,
then no correction is required and hence
correction voltage must be zero.
BDG(xx)

39

 But with FM, there is a frequency

deviation in 6*fc, which is proportional
to modulating signal amplitude.
So d.c. correction voltage also have
corresponding variation.
Therefore this d.c. voltage is passed
through low pass filter to remove
eect of frequency variation due to
modulation.
The filtered voltage is used for
frequency correction.
BDG(xx)

40

 Phase Locked Loop direct FM

transmitter
This type is used to produce WBFM
with high mod index.
When both the input frequencies to
phase comparator are same , they
are locked and output is zero.
The modulating signal is used to
control the output frequency of VCO.
The frequency of output FM of VCO is
a function of modulating signal.
BDG(xx)

41

 If there is a deviation in the centre

frequency of VCO, correction voltage
is generated.
This d.c. voltage, passing through
LPF, is added to modulating signal to
correct the VCO output.
Function of LPF is to remove rapid
changes in correction voltage due to
frequency variations in FM signal.

BDG(xx)

42

 Indirect FM Transmitter Armstrong Method

( Phase Mod. is employed to produce FM)
Stability of the frequency is a major issue in
FM. So direct methods of FM generation are
not suitable for broadcasting .
To overcome this drawback, indirect method
to generate FM from PM is employed. (block
dia.)
To get the modulating signal of same
frequency of carrier, AM signal is
generated and shifted by 90degrees and
added to fc signal vector.
BDG(xx)

43

 The resultant vector output is phase

modulated.
Since AM and carrier vectors are
having same frequency(fc), the out
put is FM.
Thus phase modulation produces FM.
The phase modulated signal can be
defined as e(pm) = Ec sin (c t +
m cos m t).
##
BDG(xx)

44

 FOSTER SEELEY DISCRIMINATOR

(Phase discriminator) The Foster Seeley Discriminator is a
common type of FM detector circuit used
mainly within radio sets constructed
using discrete components.
The Foster Seeley detector (or the Foster
Seeley discriminator) has many
similarities to the ratio detector. The
circuit topology looks very similar, having
a transformer and a pair of diodes, but
there is no third winding and instead a
choke is used.
BDG(xx)

45

 Cc,C1 & C2 oers short circuit for IF

center frequency.
Right side of L3 is at ground potential
and IF(Vin) is fed directly (in
phase)across L3.(VL3)
180 degree phase out by T1 La & Lb
equal division.
At resonant frequency of tank
circuit(IF) secondary current (Is) is in
phase with Vs and 180degree out of
phase with VL3.
BDG(xx)

46

 Like the ratio detector, the FosterSeeley circuit operates using a phase
dierence between signals.
To obtain the dierent phased signals
a connection is made to the primary
side of the transformer using a
capacitor, and this is taken to the
center tap of the transformer.
This gives a signal that is 90 degrees
out of phase.
BDG(xx)

47

 Due to loose coupling , primary of T1

acts as inductor and Ip is 90 degree
out of phase with Vin.
Voltage induced in secondary is 90
degree out of phase with Vin(VL3)
VLa and Vlb are 180 degree out of
phase with each other and 90 degree
out of phase with VL3.
Voltage across VD1 is vector sum of
VL3 and VLa and VD2 is vector sum
of VL3 and VLb.
BDG(xx)

48

 When IF > resonance, secondary tank

circuit impedance becomes inductive
and secondary current lags voltage by
theta which is proportional to frequency
deviation.
When IF < resonance, secondary
current leads secondary voltage by
theta which is proportional to frequency
deviation.
F.S.D. is tunned by injecting a frequency
equal to the IF center frequency and
tunning Co for zero volts output.
BDG(xx)

49

 Ratio Detector
Ratio detector or discriminator is
widely used for FM demodulation
within radio sets using discrete
components. It was capable of
providing a good level of performance.
In recent years the Ratio detector has
been less widely used.
The main reason for this is that it
requires the use of wire wound
inductors and these are expensive to
manufacture.
BDG(xx)

50

 Ratio Detector Circuit

BDG(xx)

51

 Other types of FM demodulator have

overtaken them, mainly as a result of the
fact that the other FM demodulator
configurations lend themselves more
easily to being incorporated into
integrated circuits.
Ratio FM detector basics When circuits employing discrete
components were more widely used, the
Ratio and Foster-Seeley detectors were
widely used. Of these the ratio detector
was the most popular as it oers a better
level of amplitude modulation rejection.
BDG(xx)

52

 This enables it to provide a greater

level of noise immunity as most
noise is amplitude noise, and it also
enables the circuit to operate
satisfactorily with lower levels of
limiting in the preceding IF stages of
the receiver.

BDG(xx)

53

 The operation of the ratio detector

centres around a frequency sensitive
phase shift network with a transformer
and the diodes that are eectively in
series with one another.
When a steady carrier is applied to the
circuit the diodes act to produce a
steady voltage across the resistors R1
and R2, and the capacitor C3 charges up
as a result.
The transformer enables the circuit to
detect changes in the frequency of the
incoming signal. It has three windings.
BDG(xx)

54

 The primary and secondary act in the

normal way to produce a signal at
the output. The third winding is untuned and the coupling between the
primary and the third winding is very
tight, and this means that the
phasing between signals in these two
windings is the same.
The primary and secondary windings
are tuned and lightly coupled.

BDG(xx)

55

 This means that there is a phase

dierence of 90 degrees between the
signals in these windings at the centre
frequency.
If the signal moves away from the centre
frequency the phase dierence will
change.
In turn the phase dierence between the
secondary and third windings also varies.
When this occurs the voltage will subtract
from one side of the secondary and add
to the other causing an imbalance across
the resistors R1 and R2.
BDG(xx)

56

 As a result this causes a current to

flow in the third winding and the
modulation to appear at the output.
The capacitors C1 and C2 filter any
remaining RF signal which may
appear across the resistors.
The capacitor C4 and R3 also act as
filters ensuring no RF reaches the
audio section of the receiver.

BDG(xx)

57

 Ratio detector advantages &

disadvantages As with any circuit there are a
number of advantages and
disadvantages to be considered
when choosing between several
options.

BDG(xx)

58

 Advantages
Simple to construct using discrete
components
Oers good level of performance and
reasonable linearity.
Disadvantages
High cost of transformer
Typically lends itself to use in only
circuits using discrete components
and not integrated circuits.
BDG(xx)

59

 Pre-emphasis
Pre-emphasis refers to boosting the
relative amplitudes of the modulating
voltage for higher audio frequencies
from 2 to approximately 15 KHz.
De-emphasis
De-emphasis means attenuating
those frequencies by the amount by
which they are boosted.

BDG(xx)

60

 However pre-emphasis is done at the

transmitter and the de-emphasis is
done in the receiver.
The purpose is to improve the signalto-noise ratio for FM reception.
A time constant of 75s is specified
in the RC or L/Z network for preemphasis and de-emphasis.

BDG(xx)

61

 Pre-emphasis circuit
At the transmitter, the modulating signal is
passed through a simple network which
amplifies the high frequency components
more than the low-frequency components.
The simplest form of such a circuit is a
simple high pass filter of the type shown in
fig.
Specification dictate a time constant of 75
microseconds (s) where t = RC. Any
combination of resistor and capacitor (or
resistor and inductor) giving this time
constant will be satisfactory.
BDG(xx)

62

BDG(xx)

63

 Such a circuit has a cut o frequency fco of

2122 Hz. This means that frequencies higher
than 2122 Hz will he linearly enhanced.
The output amplitude increases with
frequency at a rate of 6 dB per octave.
The pre-emphasis curve is shown in Fig.
This pre-emphasis circuit increases the
energy content of the higher-frequency
signals so that they will tend to become
stronger than the high frequency noise
components. This improves the signal to
noise ratio and increases intelligibility and
fidelity.
BDG(xx)

64

BDG(xx)

65

 The pre-emphasis circuit also has an

upper break frequency fu where the
signal enhancement flattens out.
This upper break frequency is
computed with the expression.
fu = R1 +(R2/2R1^2 *C)
It is usually set at some very high
value beyond the audio range. An fu
of greater than 30KHz is typical.

BDG(xx)

66

 De-emphasis Circuit-

BDG(xx)

67

BDG(xx)

68

 To return the frequency response to its

normal level, a de-emphasis circuit is used
at the receiver.
This is a simple low-pass filter with a
constant of 75 s. See figure (c).
It features a cut o of 2122 Hz and causes
signals above this frequency to be
attenuated at the rate of 6bB per octave.
The response curve is shown in Fig (d). As
a result, the pre-emphasis at the
transmitter is exactly oset by the deemphasis circuit in the receiver, providing
a normal frequency response.
BDG(xx)

69

 The combined eect of pre-emphasis

and de-emphasis is to increase the
high-frequency components during
transmission so that they will be
stronger and not masked by noise.

BDG(xx)

70